VJtetetef  Pamuy  Liuid.y  u?  veiefinary  Medans 
Cummingt  School  n'  Vntennary  Medicine  J^ 
Tu1ti>  Uriuersity  ^ 

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V 


VETERINARY 

STATE  BOARD  QUESTIONS 

AND  ANSWERS 


BY 

V.  G.  KIMBALL,  D.V.M. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR,  VETERINARY  MEDICINE,  UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


llM 


Copyright, 1914 
by  j.  b.  lippincott  company 


Electrotypcd  and  Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
The  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE 

Being  intimately  associated  with  veterinary  students,  the  author  is 
fully  aware  of  the  feelings  of  fear  and  mysticism  with  which  they  are 
possessed  when  confronted  with  the  ordeal  of  taking  a  State  Board  exam- 
ination. Partly  to  dispel  these  fears,  but  more  to  provide  a  means  of  self- 
quizzing,  this  work  was  undertaken. 

A  large  number  of  State  Board  questions  from  ten  of  the  more  repre- 
sentative eastern  and  a  few  of  the  middle  and  western  States  have  been 
sorted  over.  Those  contained  herein  represent  what  was  left  after  elim- 
inating hundreds  of  duplicates.  The  few  duplications  which  remain  serve 
to  illustrate  the  close  relationship  of  the  various  subjects  to  one  another. 
The  overlapping  and  the  necessary  process  of  elimination  resulted  in  the 
abbreviation  of  some  subjects,  especially  Sanitary  Science,  Pathology  and 
Zootechnics,  to  a  considerable  degree.  Many  topics,  considered  elsewhere, 
might  rightly  have  been  inserted  under  these  headings. 

The  author  lays  no  claim  to  literary  genius  or  bombastic  propensities. 
The  aim  has  been  to  supply  brief,  accurate  answers,  and  this  has  been 
done  many  times  at  the  expense  of  grammatical  precision. 

The  extensive  library  of  the  Veterinary  School  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  being  at  my  disposal,  has  been  thoroughly  perused  and  the 
highest  authorities  on  the  different  phases  of  veterinary  science  have  been 
carefully  consulted  and  compared.  It  would  be  impossible  to  make 
acknowledgment  to  all  in  the  space  allotted. 

To  my  colleagues,  with  whom  it  is  a  privilege  to  associate,  and  who  have 
endeared  themselves  by  their  valuable  suggestions  and  advice,  my  heartfelt 
thanks  are  due. 

It  is  the  author's  hope  that  this  humble  beginning  will  meet  the 
student 's  demand  for  a  means  of  self -interrogation  in  preparing  for  State 
Board  and  Civil  Service  examinations.  Incidentally,  by  reason  of  the 
complete  index,  it  may,  in  a  measure,  satisfy  the  need  of  a  convenient,  com- 
plete, reliable  reference  book  on  veterinary  science.  To  the  end  that 
this  may  be  accomplished,  criticisms  and  suggestions  will  be  cheerfully 
received. 

Mat,  1914.  ^-  ^-  Kimball. 

m 


CONTENTS 


PAGC 

CHEMISTRY 

Inorganic  Chemistry 2 

Hydrogen 13 

Water 14 

Hydrogen  Dioxide 15 

Oxygen 16 

Nitrogen 18 

Ammonia 19 

Air 20 

Carbon 20 

Sulphur 23 

Disinfectants  and  Antiseptics 24 

Phosphorus 25 

Halogens 25 

Gold 27 

Silver 27 

Lead ; 28 

Mercury 28 

Metals  of  the  Alkalies  .- 29 

Calcium  Group 29 

Zinc 31 

Boron 31 

Aluminum , 31 

Bismuth 31 

Iron 31 

Arsenic 33 

Antimony 34 

Organic  Chemistry 34 

Fermentation  and  Putrefaction 34 

Alcohols 35 

Chloroform 36 

Iodoform 36 

Chloral 36 

Phenols 37 

Petroleum 37 

Alkaloids 38 

Toxicology 38 

Physiological  Chemistry 40 

Carbohydrates 41 

Fats 41 

Milk 41 

Urine 42 

ANATOMY 

Osteology 44 

Arthrology 51 

Myology 57 

Circulatory  Organs 62 

Neurology 71 

Digestive  Organs 77 

Respiratory  Organs 85 

Urinary  Organs 89 

Sexual  Organs 90 

Organs  of  Special  Sense 93 

Skin,  Hair  and  Hoof 95 

Ductless  Glands 96 

Topographical  Anatomy 98 

Histological  Anatomy 99 

V 


v!  CONTENTS 

PHYSIOLOGY 

Blood 106 

Heajrt 109 

Blood-vessels 110 

Vasculak  Glands 112 

Respiration 113 

Digestion 115 

Absorption 122 

Skin 123 

Urine 125 

Nutrition 126 

Animal  Heat '. 128 

Muscular  System 130 

Nervous  System 131 

Senses 136 

The  Foot 138 

Generation  and  Development. 139 

PATHOLOGY 

Hypertrophy  and  Atrophy 143 

Degenerations 143 

Inflammation 144 

Tumors 145 

Blood 146 

Bones  and  Joints 147 

Heart  and  Blood-vessels 148 

Respiratory  Organs 150 

Abdominal  Organs 152 

Genito-urinary  Organs 153 

Nervous  System 155 

Muscles 155 

Eye 155 

Skin 156 

Infectious  Diseases 157 

Bacteriology 160 

THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE 

General  and  Differential  Diagnosis 165 

Acute  General  Infectious  Diseases 172 

Chronic  Infectious  Diseases 179 

Diseases  of  Blood  and  Blood-forming  Organs 182 

Diseases  of  Metabolism 183 

Diseases  of  the  Urinary  Organs 184 

Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  Organs 186 

Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  Organs 188 

Diseases  of  the  Digestive  Organs 191 

Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System 199 

Diseases  of  the  Organs  of  Locomotion 201 

Diseases  of  the  Skin 202 

SURGERY 

Wounds 206 

Inflammation 209 

Ulcer,  Fistula  and  Gangrene 210 

Tumors 211 

Concrements 212 

Hernia  and  Prolapse 212 

Bones 212 

Joints 214 

Tendons  and  Tendon-sheaths 215 

Muscles  and  Nerves 216 

Diseases  op  Blood-vessels 217 

Eye,  Ear  and  Throat 217 

Head  and  Neck 223 

Diseases  of  the  Thorax 228 


CONTENTS  vii 

Diseases  of  the  Abdomen 229 

Diseases  of  the  Urinary  Organs 232 

Diseases  of  the  Generative  Organs 234 

Diseases  of  the  Spinal  Column  and  Pelvis 238 

Diseases  op  the  Fore  Limb 239 

Diseases  of  the  Hind  Limb 245 

Diseases  op  the  P'oot 250 

Methods  of  Restraint,  Casting,  Etc 257 

OBSTETRICS 

Obstetrical  Anatomy 259 

Physiology 264 

Pregnancy 269 

Abortion 276 

Labor , 278 

Diseases  Incident  to  Pregnancy  and  Labor 284 

Diseases  op  the  New-born 294 

MATERIA  MEDICA  AND  THERAPEUTICS 

Prescription  Writing 332 

Toxicology 338 

Serum  Therapy 341 

Vaccine  Therapy 343 

SANITARY  SCIENCE— MEAT  AND  MILK  HYGIENE 

Air  and  Ventilation , 346 

Infectious  Diseases 347 

Prophylaxis 349 

Milk  and  Meat  Hygiene 351 

ZOOTECHNICS 360 

INDEX 367 


VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 
QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

CHEMISTRY 

Distinguish  between  chemistry  and  physics. 

Physics  is  the  science  of  matter  and  energy.  It  deals  with  those 
changes  in  matter  which  do  not  involve  a  change  in  composition. 
It  also  deals  with  the  doctrine  of  equilibrium  and  with  that  of 
motions.  The  latter  are  visible,  as  those  of  mass,  in  fall,  projection, 
rotation,  propagation  in  a  plane,  etc.;  or  invisible,  and  only  per- 
ceptible by  their  results,  as  sound,  heat,  light  and  electricity. 

Chemistry  reveals  to  us  the  composition  of  matter,  and  in  the 
formation  of  new  compounds,  acquaints  us  with  the  rules  and  laws 
by  which  its  various  forms  act  upon  one  another.  It  deals  with 
those  changes  in  matter  which  do  involve  a  change  in  composition. 

Define  specific  gravity.  If  the  specific  gravity  of  a  substance  is  1.5, 
hov^r  many  c.c.  of  distilled  water  will  ten  grammes  represent  ? 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  substance  is  the  ratio  between  the 
weight  of  any  volume  of  the  substance  and  the  weight  of  a  like 
volume  of  some  other  substance  taken  as  a  standard.  For  solids  and 
liquids,  the  standard  is  distilled  water  at  its  temperature  of  maxi- 
mum density ;  for  gases  and  vapors,  the  standards  are  hydrogen  and 
air  at  a  temperature  of  0°  C.  and  a  barometric  pressure  of  76  centi- 
metres of  mercury. 

If  the  specific  gravity  of  the  substance  in  question  is  1.5,  10 
grammes  would  equal  15  grammes  of  water;  1  gramme  of  water 
equals  1  c.c,  hence  15  grammes  would  equal  15  c.c. 

How  is  the  specific  gravity  of  a  liquid  determined? 

There  are  several  ways.  The  hydrometer  is  usually  employed, 
or  comparisons  can  be  made  of  the  weights  of  equal  volumes  of  the 
liquid  and  water. 

What  effect  on  the  volume  of  a  gas  has  (a)  change  of  pressure,  (b) 
change  of  temperature? 
(a)   The  volume  of  a  gas  varies  inversely  as  the  pressure  upon 
it  {Boyle's  law). 

(b)   All  gases  approximately  expand  equally  for  equal  rises  of 

1 


2  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

temperature.  Theoretically,  at  273  degrees  below  zero  (absolute 
zero)  the  gas  becomes  nothing,  and  for  each  degree  of  rise  in  tem- 
perature it  expands  ^J-^-of  the  volume  which  it  occupied  at  0°  C. ; 
hence  273  volumes  of  air  at  0°  C.  becomes  274  volumes  at  1°  C, 
275  at  2°  C,  etc. 

Describe  the  process  of  electro-plating. 

This  process  depends  upon  electrolysis,  that  is,  the  decomposition 
of  a  chemical  compound,  the  electrolyte,  into  its  constituent  parts, 
called  ions,  by  an  electric  current.  In  a  battery  or  in  an  electro- 
lytic bath,  the  metallic,  or  electropositive  ion  is  carried  with  the 
current  through  the  electrolyte.  Similarly,  when  a  chemical  salt 
is  electrolysed,  the  metallic  base  is  carried  to  the  cathode  (the  nega- 
tive pole  of  the  battery).  Therefore,  by  attaching  the  object  to  be 
plated  at  the  cathode  in  a  bath  composed  of  a  silver,  gold  or  copper 
solution,  it  will  become  coated,  or  plated,  with  silver,  gold  or  copper. 

Define  evaporation,  electrolysis,  amorphism,  dialysis. 

Evaporation  is  the  process  of  converting  a  substance,  especially 
a  liquid,  into  a  vapor. 

Electrolysis — see  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Amorphism  relates  to  the  non-crystalline  character  of  some 
substances,  such  as  starch  and  glue. 

Dialysis  is  the  passing  of  a  dissolved  substance  through  a  dia- 
phragm of  parchment  into  another  liquid. 

Convert  (a)  104°  F.  to  its  equivalent  in  Centigrade  degrees,  (b)  38°  C. 
to  Fahrenheit  scale. 

(a)  (104°  F.  — 32)Xf  =  40°  C. 

(b)  (38°  C.  X  |)  +  32  =  100.4°  F. 

Inorganic  Chemistry 
Define  chemistry. 

Chemistry  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  properties  and 
composition  of  substances,  their  changes  in  composition  and  the 
phenomena  attending  such  changes.  The  subject  of  chemistry  is 
divided  for  convenience  into  inorganic,  organic  and  physiologic. 

State  the  difference  between  a  chemical  and  a  physical  change,  with 
an  example  of  each. 
A  chemical  change  is  one  occurring  in  the  molecules  of  matter 
in  which  the  substance  or  substances  lose  their  identity  by  the  for- 
mation of  new  substances.    Example:  Paper,  when  burned,  yields 
carbon  dioxide,  water  and  some  charcoal. 

A  physical  change  is  one  occurring  in  a  mass  of  matter  in  which 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  3 

the  substance  retains  its  original  composition.     Example:  Water, 
changing  into  ice  or  steam. 

Define  the  following  terms:  analysis,  synthesis,  atom,  molecule,  com- 
bustion, chemical  affinity,  compound. 

Analysis  is  the  process  of  determining  the  composition  of  a  sub- 
stance.   There  are  two  kinds,  qualitative  and  quantitative. 

Synthesis  is  the  artificial  building  up  of  a  chemic  compound, 
by  the  union  of  its  elements. 

An  atom  is,  theoretically,  the  smallest  particle  of  an  element 
which  can  exist. 

A  molecule  is,  theoretically,  the  smallest  particle  of  a  compound 
that  can  exist. 

Combustion  is  oxidation  accompanied  by  the  development  of 
heat  and  light. 

Chemical  affinity  is  the  affinity  or  attraction  which  exists  between 
the  atoms  of  certain  substances. 

A  compound  is  a  substance  made  up  of  two  or  more  elements, 
united  to  each  other  in  definite  proportions : 

Define  and  illustrate  acid,  base,  salt,  alkali. 

An  acid  is  a  compound  having  electronegative,  or  anionic,  prop- 
erties and  containing  hydrogen  which  is  replaceable  by  metals  to 
form  salts.  It  produces  hydrogen  ions  when  dissolved  in  water 
or  other  dissociating  liquids.  Acids  change  blue  litmus  to  red. 
Example:  hydrochloric  acid,  HCl. 

A  base  is  a  substance  which  unites  with  an  acid  to  form  a  salt. 
Bases  produce  hydroxyl  ions  when  dissolved  in  water  or  other  dis- 
sociating liquids.  Example:  Zinc  unites  with  sulphuric  acid  to 
form  zinc  sulphate. 

A  salt  is  a  compound  formed  by  the  union  of  a  base  with  an  acid. 
Example:  Iron  sulphate  is  formed  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid 
on  iron. 

An  alkali  is  a  soluble  substance  having  strong  basic  (electro- 
positive) properties,  usually  applied  to  the  oxides  and  hydroxides 
of  the  alkali  metals  and  metals  of  the  alkali  earths.  Such  substances 
are  very  soluble  in  wat^r,  change  red  litmus  to  blue,  unite  with  and 
neutralize  acids,  forming  salts,  and  emulsify  fats.  Example :  potas- 
sium and  sodium. 

Define  efflorescent  substance,  deliquescent  substance.     Give  an  ex- 
ample of  each. 

An  efflorescent  substance  is  one  which  is  converted  from  a 
crystalline  solid  to  an  amorphous  powder  on  exposure  to  the  air, 


4  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

due  to  the  loss  of  its  water  of  crystallization.  Example:  crystal- 
line sodium  sulphate,  exposed  to  the  air,  becomes  a  white  powder. 
A  deliquescent  substance  is  one  which  can  be  converted  from  a 
solid  salt  into  a  liquid  form  by  the  absorption  of  moisture  from 
the  air.  Example:  calcium  chloride  left  in  an  open  vessel  for  a 
few  days  will  become  wet  and  in  time  will  even  liquefy. 

Define  acid  salt,  amalgam,  molecular  repulsion,  neutralizatioiL 

An  acid  salt  is  one  in  which  only  part  of  the  hydrogen  of  an 
acid  is  replaced  by  a  metal  or  basic  radical.    Example :  NaHSO^. 

An  amalgam  is  an  alloy  containing  mercury,  as  tin  and  mercury. 

Molecular  repulsion  is  the  term  applied  to  the  tendency  of 
molecules  to  separate.  According  to  the  theory  of  the  constitution 
of  matter,  the  molecules  of  every  mass  are  in  ceaseless  motion, 
hitting  and  rebounding  from  one  another.  In  gaseous  masses,  the 
molecules  move  without  restraint;  hence  gases  always  tend  to 
expand. 

Neutralization  is  the  term  applied  to  the  interaction  between 
acids  and  bases  with  the  result  that  both  acid  and  basic  properties 
disappear,  i.e.,  are  neutralized.  It  consists  in  the  union  of  the 
hydrogen  ion  of  an  acid  with  the  hydroxyl  ion  of  a  base  to  form 
water. 

Define  valence  and  write  formulas  of  four  compounds  containing  ele- 
ments having  different  valences,  indicating  the  valence  in 
each  case. 
Valence  is  the  definite  capacity  which  every  elementary  atom 
has  for  uniting  with  other  atoms.    Hydrogen  is  taken  as  the  standard 
and  its  valency  is  assumed  to  be  unity.     In  HCl,  CI  is  univalent 
because  it  combines  with  one  atom  of  H;  in  H2O,  0  is  bivalent; 
in  NH3,  N  is  trivalent ;  in  C'H^,  C  is  quadrivalent. 

Define  monad,  diad,  triad,  tetrad,  pentad.    Give  an  example  of  each. 

Monad  is  an  element  having  a  valency  of  one ;  diad,  a  valency  of 
two ;  triad,  three ;  tetrad,  four ;  pentad,  five. 

Examples:  see  preceding  answer;  pentad,  phosphorus  as  in 
PCI5. 

Define  monobasic  acid,  dibasic  acid,  tribasic  acid.    Give  an  example  of 
each. 
A  monobasic  acid  is  one  containing  in  its  molecule  one  replace- 
able atom  of  hydrogen,  as  nitric  acid,  IINO3. 

A  dibasic  acid  is  one  having  two  replaceable  atoms  of  hydrogen 
in  its  molecule,  as  sulphuric  acid,  H0SO4. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  5 

A  tribasie  acid  is  one  having  three  replaceable  atoms  of  hydrogen 
in  its  molecule,  as  phosphoric  acid,  H3PO4. 

Define  crith,  atomic  weight,  and  molecular  weight. 

A  crith  is  the  unit  of  weight  for  gases,  it  being  the  weight,  in  a 
vacuum,  of  a  litre  of  hydrogen  gas  at  0°  C.  A  crith  =  0.0899  gramme. 

Atomic  weight  is  the  weight  of  an  atom  of  a  substance  compared 
with  the  weight  of  an  atom  of  hydrogen  which  is  taken  as  unity. 
( In  scientific  work,  oxygen  is  taken  as  the  standard,  but  the  U.  S.  P. 
takes  hydrogen.) 

Molecular  weight  is  the  sum  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  element 
or  elements  contained  in  a  molecule  of  a  substance. 

Define  allotropism  and  reduction. 

Allotropism  is  the  property  possessed  by  certain  elements  of 
presenting  themselves  in  two  or  more  different  forms,  as  the  allo- 
tropic  forms  of  carbon,  seen  in  the  diamond,  charcoal  and  graphite. 

Reduction  is  the  process  of  abstracting  oxygen  from  an  oxide. 
(This  is  a  generally  accepted  definition,  although  the  subject  of 
reduction  has  a  deeper  significance,  as  may  be  instanced  in  the 
reduction  of  calomel  with  stannous  chloride,  which  also  involves 
the  subject  of  valence.  SnClg  +  2HgCl  =  SnCl^  +  Hgg.  See  oxi- 
dation, p.  16.) 

What  is  a  metal  ? 

A  metal  is  an  element  which  is  predominantly  basic  in  its  chemi- 
cal behavior.  Metals  are  solid  at  ordinary  temperature,  except 
mercury,  usually  opaque,  have  a  more  or  less  metallic  lustre,  are 
malleable,  ductile,  tenacious,  good  conductors  of  heat  and  elec- 
tricity, and  are  capable  of  forming  basic  substances  and  salts. 

What  is  meant  by  isomerism? 

Two  or  more  compounds  which  contain  the  same  elements  in  the 
same  relative  proportions  by  weight  in  the  molecule,  but  differ  more 
or  less  widely  in  their  physical,  chemical  and  physiological  proper- 
ties, are  called  isomeric,  e.g.,  C3H6O3,  lactic  acid,  and  OJl^jO^, 
grape  sugar. 

Define  chemical  action.     Name  three  kinds  and  give  an  example  of 
each. 
Chemical  action  refers  to  the  changes  taking  place  in  two  or 
more  elements  when  brought  in  contact  or  disintegrated. 

Light :  Silver  chloride  decomposes  in  the  presence  of  light. 
Heat :  Heat  decomposes  red  oxide  of  mercury  into  mercury  and 
oxygen. 


6  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Electricity:  By  electrolysis,  water  is  split  into  hydrogen  and 
oxygen. 

How  many  elements  are  there? 

There  are  about  eighty  known  elements. 

Give  the  symbol  and  atomic  weight  of  each  of  the  following  elements : 
chlorine,     hydrogen,     nitrogen,     oxygen,    potassium    and 
sodium. 
Chlorine,  CI,  35.2;  hydrogen,  H,  1;  nitrogen,  N,  14;  oxygen, 
0,  16 ;  potassium,  K,  39 ;  sodium,  Na,  23. 

Name  five  elements.     Give  the  symbol  and  one  principal  use  of  each 
element  named. 
Carbon,  C,  is  the  chief  element  of  coal. 
Phosphorus,  P,  is  used  in  matches. 
Arsenic,  As,  is  used  in  medicine. 
Copper,  Cu,  is  used  in  the  arts. 
Chlorine,  CI,  is  used  as  a  bleaching  agent. 

Define  incompatibility.    Name  three  forms  and  give  an  example  of  each. 

Incompatibility  is  that  relation  between  medicines  which  ren- 
ders their  admixture  unsuitable.  There  are  three  forms,  viz.,  chemi- 
cal, physical  or  pharmaceutical,  and  physiological  or  therapeutic. 

A  chemical  incompatibility  exists  when  a  new  compound  is 
formed,  as  silver  nitrate  and  sodium  chloride  form  silver  chloride; 
a  physical,  when  an  unsightly  appearance  is  produced,  as  when 
resinous  tinctures  are  added  to  aqueous  solutions,  the  resins  sepa- 
rate; a  physiological,  when  there  is  an  antagonistic  action  between 
the  drugs,  as  atropine,  which  checks  secretion,  and  pilocarpine, 
which  stimulates  glandular  activity. 

Write  the  chemical  formula  for  (a)  sulphuric  acid,  (b)  nitric  acid,  (c) 
potassium  iodide,  (d)  copperas,  (e)  epsom  salts. 
(a)  H,SO„  (b)  HNO3,  (c)  KI,  (d)  FeSO^,  7IL0,  (e)  MgSO,, 
7H,0. 

What  is  meant  by  synthesis?     Name  two  products  that  can  be  made 
this  way. 
Synthesis  is  the  artificial  building  up  of  a  chemic  compound 
by  the  union  of  its  elements. 

Water  can  be  made  by  uniting  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  Cupric 
oxide  can  be  made  by  heating  metallic  copper  in  the  air. 

What  is  meant  by  diffusion  of  gases?     Describe  an  experiment  to  illus- 
trate diffusion  of  gases. 
A  diffusion,  similar  to  that  of  liquids,  takes  place  when  two 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  7 

different  gases  are  separated  from  each  other  by  some  porous  sub- 
stance, such  as  burned  clay,  gypsum,  etc. 

In  the  open  end  of  an  unglazed  clay  cylinder  (such  as  is  used 
in  galvanic  experiments)  there  is  fixed  a  glass  tube  about  one  metre 
long,  its  open  end  terminating  in  a  dish  containing  water ;  the  cylin- 
der and  tube  are  filled  with  air.  Over  the  porous  cylinder  is  placed 
a  wider  vessel  filled  with  hydrogen.  The  latter  presses  faster  into 
the  cylinder  than  the  air  escapes  from  it;  the  air  in  the  cylinder 
and  tube  is  displaced  and  rises  in  the  water  in  bubbles.  When  the 
escape  of  gas  ceases,  the  tube  and  cylinder  are  almost  filled  with 
pure  hydrogen. 

State  which  of  the  following  gases  are  (a)  lighter  than  air,  (b)  heavier 
than  air:  oxygen,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  ammonia  gas, 
sulphur  dioxide,  chlorine. 

(a)  Hydrogen,  ammonia  gas,  nitrogen. 

(b)  Sulphur  dioxide,  chlorine,  oxygen. 

Distinguish  in  meaning  between  the  following  suffixes  when  used  in 
names  of  chemical  compounds :  (a)  ous  and  ic,  (b)  ate  and 
ite.     Give  examples. 

(a)  ous  indicates  that  a  compound  contains  less,  and  ic  that  it 
contains  more,  of  the  other,  or  electronegative,  element.  An  ex- 
planation of  these  terms  involves  the  subject  of  valence.  Fre- 
quently, two  elements  unite  to  form  two  or  more  compounds,  for 
instance,  mercury  and  chlorine  unite  to  form  mercurous  chloride, 
HgoCL,  and  also,  mercuric  chloride,  HgCL.  The  electropositive 
atom  (mercury)  terminates  in  ous,  indicating  the  lower  valence 
(or  a  valence  of  2  for  two  atoms),  while  ic  indicates  the  higher 
valence  (or  a  valence  of  2  for  one  atom). 

(b)  The  suffix  ite  indicates  that  a  salt  is  derived  from  an  acid, 
terminating  in  ous  (as  NaoSOg,  sodium  sulphite),  and  the  suffix  ate 
that  it  is  derived  from  an  acid  terminating  in  ic  (as  Na2S04,  sodium 
sulphate). 

Give  the  formula  and  the  chemical  name  of  each  of  the  following :  (a) 

washing  soda,  (b)  saltpetre,  (c)  blue  vitriol,  (d)  corrosive 

sublimate,  (e)  Glauber's  salt,  (f)  Rochelle  salt. 

(a)   Sodium  carbonate,  Na^COg,  lOH^O.    (b)  Potassium  nitrate, 

KNO3.     (c)   Copper    sulphate,    CuSO^.       (d)  Mercuric    chloride, 

HgCL.      (e)   Sodium  sulphate,   Na^SO^.      (f)  Potassium   sodium 

tartrate,  KNaC^H^Oe. 

Distinguish  between  organic  and  inorganic  compounds. 

Organic  compounds  contain  carbon  and  therefore,  upon  biirn- 


8  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

ing,  char.  "When  pure  they  are  completely  consumed  under  con- 
tinued heat ;  any  residue  remaining  after  the  disappearance  of  the 
char  indicates  the  presence  of  mineral  matter.  They  are  the  essen- 
tial compounds  of  plant  and  animal  structures  and  their  molecular 
composition  may  be  very  complex,  but  includes  only  a  few  elements. 
An  inorganic  compound  is  any  one  of  the  large  series  of  com- 
poimds  (minerals,  metals,  etc.)  which  are  not  directly  connected 
with  vital  processes,  either  in  origin  or  nature,  and  which  are 
broadly  and  relatively  contrasted  with  organic  compounds. 

Distinguish  between  solution  and  emulsion. 

The  term  solution  is  applied  to  any  clear  and  homogeneous 
liquid  obtained  by  causing  the  transformation  of  matter  from  a 
solid  or  gaseous  state  to  the  liquid  state,  by  means  of  a  liquid  called 
the  solvent  or  menstruum.  Solutions  may  be  made  by  uniting  two 
liquids,  as  when  we  dissolve  oil  in  ether. 

The  term  emulsion  is  used  to  designate  a  more  or  less  homo- 
geneous liquid,  rendered  opaque  or  milky  by  the  suspension  in  it 
of  finely  divided  particles  of  fat,  oil  or  resin. 

Distinguish  in  meaning  between  the  following  when  used  in  names  of 
chemical  compounds :  hypo  and  per.    Give  examples  to  illus- 
trate the  differences. 
Hypo  is  prefixed  to  a  compound  containing  less  of  the  negative 
element,  oxygen,  than  the  ous  compound  in  that  series,  as  hypo- 
chlorous  acid,  HCIO,  and  chlorous  acid,  HClOo. 

Ter  or  hyper  indicates  that  the  compound  contains  a  greater 
amount  of  oxygen  than  the  ic  compound  in  the  series,  as  perchloric 
acid,  HCIO4,  and  chloric  acid,  HCIO3.  We  have  the  term  peroxide, 
applied  to  compounds  very  rich  in  oxygen. 

Name  a  substance  used  as  a  bleaching  powder  and  explain  chemically 

its  bleaching  properties. 

Hypochlorite  of  lime,  CaOCla.    The  element  chlorine  has  a  strong 

affinity  for  hydrogen.    In  the  presence  of  moisture,  it  unites  with 

the  hydrogen  and  thus  liberates  oxygen,  which  acts  upon  the  coloring 

matter  and  bleaches  it. 

Write  the  equation  to  show  the  reaction  between  (a)  sulphuric  acid 
and  zinc,  (b)  hydrochloric  acid  and  calcium  carbonate,  (c) 
sodium  carbonate  and  calcium  hydroxide. 

(a)  H,SO,  +  Zn  =  ZnS04 -f- H.. 

(b)  2HC1  4-  CaCO,  =  CaCL  -f  H.O  +  CO,. 

(c)  Na,C03  +  Ca(bll),  =  2NaOII  +  CaCO,. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  9 

Distinguish  between  a  mixture  and  a  compound. 

A  mixture  consists  of  a  eombinatiou  of  two  or  more  substances 
each  of  which  retains  its  individual  characteristics  and  may  be 
separated  from  each  other  by  mechanical  means,  no  matter  how 
thoroughly  mixed  and  finely  commingled.  Example:  Iron  filings 
and  sulphur  may  be  mixed  and  if  no  heat  is  added,  the  iron  can  be 
removed  from  the  mixture  with  an  electromagnet ;  if  heat  had  been 
added  to  the  mixture,  a  compound,  ferrous  sulphide  (FeS)  would 
have  been  formed,  which  would  require  chemical  means  to  separate. 

Distinguish  between  a  metal  and  a  non-metal. 

See  "metals,"  p.  5.  Non-metals  do  not  possess  a  metallic 
appearance  and  are  known  as  metalloids.  To  these  belong  sulphur, 
carbon,  phosphorus,  oxygen,  etc.  The  line  between  metals  and  non- 
metals  is  not  very  marked.  Thus,  mercury,  despite  the  fact  that 
it  is  liquid  at  ordinary  temperature,  must  be  included  among  the 
metals  because  of  its  chemical  properties. 

Mention  (a)  three  light  metals  and  (b)  three  heavy  metals.     Give  the 
symbol  and  atomic  weight  of  each. 

(a)  Aluminum,  Al,  26,9;  sodium,  Na,  23;  potassium,  K,  39. 

(b)  Gold,  Au,  195.7;  lead,  Pb,  205;  iron,  Fe,  56. 

Name  ten  non-metallic  elements  and  write  the  symbol  of  each. 

Hydrogen,  H;  oxygen,  O;  nitrogen,  N;  sulphur,  S;  carbon,  C; 
phosphorus,  P ;  chlorine,  CI ;  bromine,  Br ;  iodine,  I ;  fluorine,  F. 

Complete  the  following  equations: 

1.  HCl  +  AgNOg  = 

2.  2NH4OH  +  H.SO,  = 

3.  HoO  +  Na  = 

1.  HCl  +  AgNOs  =  AgCl  +  HNO3. 

2.  2NH,0H  +  H,SO,  =  (NHJ.SO^  +  2H2O. 

3.  H.O  +  Na  =  NaOH  +  H. 

Complete  the  following  equations : 

1.  AgNOg  +  KCl  = 

2.  ZnCl^  +  2K0H  = 

3.  CaFo  +  HoSO,  = 

4.  3Hci  +  HNO3  = 

5.  Ca(OH)2  +  2NH,Cl== 

1.  AgNOg  +  KCl  =  AgCl  -f  KNO3. 

2.  ZnCL  +  2K0H  =  2KC1  +  Zn(0H)2. 

3.  CaFo  +  H.SO^  =  2HF  +  CaSO^. 

4.  3HC1  +  HNO3  =  2HoO  +  NO  +  3C1. 

5.  Ca(OH),  +  2NH^C1  =  CaCL  +  2(NH,0H). 


10  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Complete  the  following  equations : 

1.  AgNOg  +  NaCl  = 

2.  CuSO,  +  H.S  = 

3.  2NaCl  +  H.SO,  = 

1.  AgNO^  +  NaCl  =  AgCl  +  NaNOg. 

2.  CiiSo,  +  H.S  =  H.SO,  +  CuS. 

3.  2NaCl  +  H,SO,  =  Na,SO,  +  2HCL 

Complete  the  following  equations : 

1.  NaNOs  +  H„SO,  = 

2.  CaC03  +  2HCl  = 

3.  2NaCl  +  2H,S04  +  MnO,  = 

4.  Cu  +  2H2S04  = 

1.  NaNOg  +  H0SO4  =  NaHSO^  +  HNO3. 

2.  CaC03  +  2HC1  =  CaCL  +  H.O  +  CO^. 

3.  2NaCl  +  2H,S04  +  MnO,  =  CL  +  NaoSO,  -j-  MnSO,  + 
2H2O. 

4.  Cu  +  2H,S0,  =  CuSO,  +  2H.0  +  SO^. 

Complete  the  following  equations : 

1.  Pb(N03).  +  H,S  = 

2.  C'a(OH)2  +  2HCl  = 

3.  2NaOH  +  H.SO,  = 

1.  Pb(N03)2  +  H,S  =  2HNO3  4-  PbS. 

2.  Ca(OH)o  +  2HC1  =  CaCL  +  2HoO. 

3.  2NaOH  +  HoSO,  =  Na.SO^  +  2H,0. 

Complete  the  following  chemical  equation.     Give  the  name  of  the  new 
compound  formed. 
Zn  +  2HC1  = 
Zn  +  2HC1  ^  ZnCL  +  2H.     ZnCL  =  Zinc  chloride. 

Write  the  equation  to  express  the  reaction  that  takes  place  between 
sulphuric  acid  and  sodium  carbonate.    Name  the  compounds 
formed. 
H2SO4  +  Na.CO.,  =  Na-,SO,  (sodium  sulphate)  +  PL 0( water )  + 
CO2  (carbon  dioxide). 

Write  the  equation  to  express  the  reaction  between  (a)  potassium 
chloride  and  sodium  nitrate,  (b)  ammonium  chloride  and 
calcium  hydroxide,  (c)  ferrous  sulphide  and  hydrochloric 
acid. 

(a)  KCl  +  NaNOg  =  NaCl  +  KNO3. 

(b)  2NII,C1  +  Ca(0H)2  =  CaCL  +  2(NII,0II). 

(c)  FeS  +  2HC1  =  FeCl,  +  H.S. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  11 

Give  the  chemical  symbol  and  the  atomic  weight  of  each  of  the  follow- 
ing:  (a)   hydrogen,   (b)   chlorine,   (c)   iron,   (d)   mercury, 
(e)  oxygen. 
(a)  H,  1;  (b)  CI,  35;  (c)  Fe,  56;  (d)  Hg,  198.5;  (e)  0,  16. 
Give  the  chemical  name  of  each  of  the  following:   (a)   FeCU,   (b) 
NaHCO,,  (c)  CO.,  (d)  As.O.,  (e)  H,PO,. 
(a)  Ferrous  chloride,  (b)  sodium  bicarbonate,  (c)  carbon  diox- 
ide, (d)  arsenic  trioxide,  (e)  phosphoric  acid. 

Write  the  chemical  names  of  the  substances  whose  formulas  are  as 
follows:  (a)  Ca(OH)..,  (b)  KCIO3,  (c)  PH„,,  (d)  KNO„  (e) 
HgCl,  (f)  SnCL,  (g)  KMnO,,  (h)  NO,  (i)  CO,  (j)  AgN03. 
(a)   Calcium  hydroxide,  (b)  potassium  chlorate,  (c)  phosphine, 
(d)  potassium  nitrate,  (e)  mercurous  chloride,  (f)  stannous  chlo- 
ride,  (g)   potassium  permanganate,    (h)   nitric  oxide,    (i)   carbon 
monoxide,  (j)  silver  nitrate. 

Write  the  graphic  formula  of  (a)  sulphuric  acid,  (b)  ammonia,  (c) 
potassium  chlorate. 

(a)  H-0\    ^O 

(b)  H-N<(|^ 

(c)  Cl-0-O-O-K 

Give  two  laws  relating  to  chemical  combinations. 

1.  Law  of  constant  or  definite  proportions.  The  same  compound 
is  always  composed  of  the  same  elements  in  constant  proportions  by 
weight. 

2.  Law  of  multiple  proportions.  When  two  elements  unite  to 
form  several  compounds  the  higher  proportions  of  each  are  even 
multiples  of  the  lowest. 

Explain  fully  how  the  percentage  composition  of  any  compound  is 
determined. 
Obtain  the  molecular  weight  of  the  compound  by  adding  together 
the  atomic  weights  of  the  elements  it  contains.  Then,  the  percentage 
of  any  one  element  is  obtained  by  dividing  its  atomic  weight  by  the 
molecular  weight.  For  instance,  the  molecular  weight  of  KNO3 
is,  38.82  +  13.93  +  47.64  =  100.39.  The  percentage  composition 
of  K  is  38.82  ^  100.39,  or  38.66  per  cent. 

Define  and  illustrate  the  law  of  definite  proportions. 
Definition  given  above. 

Sodium  chloride,  NaCl,  is  always  composed  of  23  parts  by  weight 
of  Na  and  35,5  parts  of  CI, 


12  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

State  Avogadro's  law. 

Equal  volumes  of  gases,  compared  under  identical  conditions  of 
temperature  and  pressure,  contain  equal  numbers  of  molecules. 

Name  the  elements  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing alloys :  (a)  brass,  (b)  German  silver,  (c)  soft  solder, 
(d)  bell  metal. 
(a)   Copper  and  zinc,  (b)  copper,  zinc  and  nickel,  (c)  tin  and 
lead,  (d)  copper  and  tin. 

Is  glass  a  compound  or  a  mixture?  To  what  does  green  glass  owe  its 
color? 

Glass  is  a  mixture.  Green  glass  owes  its  color  to  silicates  of  iron 
derived  from  the  impure  materials  of  which  it  is  made. 

What  element  occurs  in  all  acid  compounds? 
Hydrogen. 

Name  two  classes  of  salts  and  distinguish  between  the  classes  named. 

Acid  salts  are  acids  in  which  only  a  portion  of  their  replaceable 
hydrogen  atoms  have  been  replaced,  e.g.,  KHSO4,  potassium  hydro- 
gen sulphate.    Acid  salts  are  generally  acid  in  reaction  to  litmus. 

Basic  salts  are  salts  containing  a  higher  proportion  of  a  base 
than  is  necessary  for  the  formation  of  a  salt,  e.g.,  Pb(0H)N03,  basic 
lead  nitrate. 

What  gas  is  evolved  when  copper  acts  on  nitric  acid?     Account  for 
the  formation  of  this  gas. 
Nitric  oxide,  NO. 
3Cu  +  8HNO3  =  3Cu(N03)2  +  2N0  +  4H.0. 

Determine  how  much  sulphuric  acid  and  how  much  copper  will  be 
needed  to  produce  1,000  grammes  of  copper  sulphate  by  the 
reaction  Cu  +  2H,SO,  =.  CuSO^  +  SO,  +  2H2O.    [Atomic 
weight  of  S  =  32,  of  copper  =r  63,  of  O  =:■  16.] 
See  p.  11  regarding  determination  of  percentage  composition. 
Molecular  weight  of  Cu  =  63,  of  sulphuric  acid  =  196,  of  copper 
sulphate  =  159 ;  it  takes  63  -f  196  or  259  parts  of  copper  and 
sulphuric  acid  to  make  159  parts  of  copper  sulphate.  So,  259 :  159  = 
X :  1000 ;  X  =  1629.    63/259  of  1629  =  396,  and  196/259  of  1629  = 
1233.     Substituting  grammes  for  parts,  we  have  396  grammes  of 
copper  and  1233  grammes  of  sulphuric  acid  necessary  to  make  1000 
grammes  of  copper  sulphate. 

Find  the  number  of  grammes  of  oxygen  that  can  be  prepared  from  10 
grammes  of  KCIO..  [■Atomic  weight  of  K  =  39,  of  CI  =  35, 
of  O  =  16.] 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  13 

39  +  35  +  48  =  122,  the  molecular  weight  of  KCIO,,. 

48  -^  122  =  .393,  the  percentage  composition  of  oxygen. 

10  grammes  of  KCIO3  would  contain  3.93  grammes  of  oxygen. 

Calculate  the  weight  of  carbonic  acid  gas  that  can  be  obtained  from 
one  pound  of  marble.     Write  the  equation.     [Atomic  wt. 
of  Ca  =  40,  of  O  =:  16,  of  C  :=  12.] 
CaCOs  +  heat  =  CaO  -f-  CO.. 

40  -|-  12  -f-  48  =  100,  the  molecular  weight  of  calcium  carbonate 
(marble).  12  +  32  =  44,  the  molecular  weight  of  carbon  dioxide 
(carbonic  acid  gas).  Therefore  .44  is  the  percentage  composition 
of  CO..  From  one  pound  of  marble,  .44  of  a  pound  of  CO.  could 
be  obtained. 

Under  standard  conditions  how  many  litres  of  hydrochloric  acid  will 

result  from  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  117  grammes  of 

common  salt?     [Na  =  23,  CI  =  35.5.] 

2NaCl  +  H.SO,  =  Na.SO,  +  2HC1.     The  molecular  weight  of 

NaCl  =  58.5.    The  molecular  weight  of  HCl  =  36.5.    58.5 :  36.5  = 

117 :  X.    X  =  73g.     One  litre  of  hydrogen  weighs  0.0899  gramme 

under  standard  conditions.    73  -f-  0.0899  =  812  litres. 

How  much   chlorine   can   be   derived   from   50   grammes   of   NaCl? 
[Atomic  weight  of  Na  =  23,  of  CI  =  35.5-] 
23  +  35.5  =  58.5,  the  molecular  weight  of  NaCl.     35.5:  58.5  = 
X :  50.     X  =  30.34  grammes. 

HYDROGEN 

What  are  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  hydrogen? 

Hydrogen,  the  lightest  of  all  elements,  is  a  colorless,  odorless, 
tasteless  gas ;  combustible,  burning  with  a  colorless  flame,  but  is  not 
a  supporter  of  combustion.  The  resulting  compound  of  its  com- 
bustion in  air  is  water.  It  is  only  slightly  soluble  in  water,  is 
electropositive  and  capable  of  combining  with  many  elements. 

Give  details  of  the  preparation  of  hydrogen  by  the  action  of  an  acid 
on  a  metal.     Write  the  equation. 

Place  a  quantity  of  granulated  zinc  in  a  glass  flask  and  cover 
it  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  Adjust  a  piece  of  glass  tubing  in 
the  stopper  of  the  flask  and  after  the  air  of  the  flask  is  expelled, 
hydrogen  will  pass  from  the  tubing.     Zn  +  2HC1  =  ZnCl,  -f-  2H. 

Give  (a)  the  symbol,  (b)  valence,  (c)  atomic  weight,  and  (d)  a  method 
of  preparation  of  hydrogen. 

(a)   H,  (b)  1,  (c)  1,  (d)  see  answer  to  preceding  question  (Iron 


14  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

filings  may  be  substituted  for  the  zinc,  and  sulphuric  acid  for  the 
hydrochloric  acid). 

What  element  occurs  in  all  acid  compounds?     Describe  the  element. 
Hydrogen,     See  description  given  above. 

Find  how  many  grammes  of  H  may  be  released  from  HCl  by  260 
grammes  of  Zn.  How  many  grammes  of  HCl  are  neces- 
sary?    [Atomic  weight  of  Zn  =  6s,  of  01  =  35.5.] 

65 :  2  =  260 :  X.    X  =  8  grammes  of  H. 

73 : 2  =  X :  8.    X  =  292  grammes  of  HCl. 

WATER 

Give  the  composition  of  water  (a)  by  volume,  (b)  by  weight,  and  (c) 
give  its  molecular  weight. 

(a)  Two  volumes  hydrogen  and  one  volume  of  oxygen. 

(b)  Two  parts  of  hydrogen  and  sixteen  parts  of  oxygen. 

(c)  18. 

If  six  volmnes  of  hydrogen  and  two  volumes  of  oxygen  are  placed 
together  and  the  electric  spark  passed  through  them,  will 
the  volume  be  increased  or  diminished,  and  to  what  extent? 
The  volume  will  be  diminished  from  8  to  2,  because  four  volumes 
of  hydrogen  would  unite  with  the  two  of  oxygen  and  form  2  mole- 
cules of  water,  leaving  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  free.    The  volume 
of  the  water  formed  is  so  small  that  it  may  be  disregarded  in  the 
calculations. 

Describe  one  way  in  which  water  can  be  decomposed  and  two  ways  in 
which  it  can  be  formed. 
Decompose  by  acidulating  slightly  with  sulphuric  acid  and  pass 
an  electric  current  through  it.  Wat^r  can  be  formed  by  passing 
an  electric  spark  through  a  receptacle  containing  two  volumes  of 
hydrogen  and  one  volume  of  oxygen ;  also  by  burning  hydrogen  in 
the  presence  of  oxygen,  as  in  the  air. 

State  the  means  by  which  water  may  be  purified.     Describe  one  of 
these  ways. 
Filtration,  distillation  and  precipitation. 

Filtration  is  accomplished  by  allowing  the  water  to  percolate 
through  layers  of  charcoal  and  sand,  or  by  forcing  it  through  a 
very  thick  porcelain  material  with  small  pores. 

Describe  a  test  to  show  the  presence  of  each  of  the  following  in  water ; 
(a)  chlorides,  (b)  nitrates,  (c)  lead, 
(a)  Add  silver  nitrate:  a  white,  curdy  precipitate  is  produced 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  15 

which  is  soluble  in  even  very  dilute  ammonia  water,  but  insoluble 
in  nitric  acid. 

(b)  Add  a  few  drops  of  1  part  of  brucine  in  300  parts  of  5  per 
cent,  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  then  add  some  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  by  pouring  carefully  down  the  side  of  the  test  tube  and  a  red 
color,  changing  to  yellow,  is  produced  at  the  line  of  contact. 

(c)  Add  hydrogen  sulphide  or  ammonium  sulphide  to  the  solu- 
tion and  a  black  precipitate  of  lead  sulphide,  which  is  insoluble  in 
dilute  acids  or  alkalies,  results. 

Distinguish  between  hard  water  and  soft  water.     Under  what  con- 
ditions and  how  may  hard  water  be  made  soft? 
Hardness  of  water  is  due  to  the  presence  of  mineral  salts  (cal- 
cium, magnesiiun).    Hard  water  does  not  readily  produce  a  lather 
with  soap.     Soft  water  contains  very  little  or  no  inorganic  matter 
and  readily  produces  a  lather  with  soap. 

By  boiling  hard  water,  carbon  dioxide  escapes,  the  carbonates  of 
the  metals  are  precipitated,  and  the  water  is  rendered  soft.  By 
distillation,  hard  water  may  be  made  soft. 

Describe  a  test  to  determine  the  hardness  of  water. 

For  calcium:  Pass  a  small  amount  of  CO2  into  the  water, 
CaHCOg  will  be  thrown  down,  but  is  redissolved  in  an  excess  of 
CO2.  Upon  boiling  the  clear  solution,  the  excess  of  CO2  will  be 
driven  off  and  CaHCOg  will  be  precipitated. 

For  magnesium:  The  addition  of  an  alkali  carbonate  solution 
causes  a  white  precipitate  of  basic  magnesium  carbonate. 

Hard  water  does  not  readily  produce  a  lather  with  soap,  as  does 
soft  water. 

Describe  the  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe. 

In  this  apparatus  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  contained  in  two 
separate  receptacles.  They  are  mixed  just  at  the  tip  of  the  burner, 
which  consists  of  two  tubes,  one  within  the  other.  Through  the 
inner  tube,  oxygen  is  passed,  and  the  outer  one  is  connected  with 
the  hydrogen  reservoir.  The  hydrogen  is  first  turned  on  and  ignited, 
then  the  oxygen  is  admitted.    The  resultant  flame  is  intensely  hot. 

HYDROGEN  DIOXIDE 

What  is  hydrogen  dioxide  ?     Write  the  formula. 

It  is  a  colorless  liquid  with  an  odor  resembling  weak  chlorine 
solution,  a  bitter  astringent  taste,  and  is  unstable  in  concentrated 
solutions,  being  easily  decomposed  with  the  liberation  of  oxygen. 


16  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

It  is  composed  of  two  parts  by  weight  of  hydrogen  and  thirty-two 
of  oxygen.    Formula  H2O0. 

Write  the  equation  for  the  preparation  of  hydrogen  dioxide. 
BaO,  +  H.SO^  +  H.O  =  BaSO,  +  H.O,  +  H.O. 

Mention  the  important  properties  and  the  uses  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 
It  is  an  active  oxidizing  agent  and  is  used  preeminently  as  a 
disinfectant,  bleaching  agent,  antisuppurant,  and  deodorant. 

Give  the  chemical  explanation  of  the  uses  of  hydrogen  peroxide. 

It  acts  as  an  oxidizing  agent  because  it  is  readily  decomposed 
into  water,  HoO,  and  nascent  oxygen,  O. 

OXYGEN 

Describe  oxygen  as  to  (a)  occurrence,   (b)  physical  properties,   (c) 
chemical  properties. 

(a)  Most  abundant  of  all  the  elements.  Uncombiued,  but  mixed 
with  nitrogen,  it  constitutes  one-fifth  of  the  atmosphere ;  combined, 
it  forms  eight-ninths  of  the  material  composing  water,  and  nearly 
half  the  weight  of  all  the  rocks.  It  is  a  very  important  constituent 
of  animal  and  vegetable  matter. 

(b)  A  colorless,  tasteless,  odorless  gas,  nearly  sixteen  times 
heavier  than  hydrogen,  and  somewhat  heavier  than  air.  It  may  be 
made  liquid  or  even  solidified  by  great  cold  and  pressure. 

(c)  It  supports  combustion,  but  is  non-combustible  and  is  one 
of  the  most  powerful  electronegative  elements;  capable  of  uniting 
with  all  elements  except  fluorine,  bromine  and  the  helium  group. 

Describe  a  method  of  preparing  oxygen.     Give  the  symbol,  atomic 

weight  and  specific  gravity  of  oxygen. 

Mix  potassium  chlorate  and  manganese  dioxide,  equal  parts,  and 

apply  heat,  carefully ;  oxygen  will  be  given  off  copiously.    Symbol, 

0.    Atomic  weight,  16.    Specific  gravity,  compared  with  hydrogen, 

is  16,  compared  with  air,  1.1056, 

How  much  oxygen  can  be  obtained  from  50  grammes  of  potassium 
chlorate?     [Atomic   weight   of  potassium  =  39,   of   chlor- 
ine =  35.5,  of  oxygen  =  16.] 
39  +  35.5  +  48  =  122.5,  the  molecular  weight  of  KCIO^.     The 
molecular  weight  of  3  atoms  of  oxygen  =  48.     122.5 :  48  =  50 :  X. 
X  =  19.5  grammes. 

What  is  oxidation?     Give  an  example. 

Oxidation  is  the  union  of  oxygen  with  other  elements,  the  prod- 
ucts formed  are  oxides.  Example:  iron  and  oxygen  unite  to  form 
ferrous  oxide.    See  reduction,  p.  5. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  17 

What  is  combustion? 

Combustiou  is  rapid  oxidation  and  is  accompanied  by  heat  and 
light. 

Distinguish  between  an  oxidizing  and  a  reducing  agent  and  give  an 
example  of  each. 
An  oxidizing  agent  is  one  which  readily  parts  with  its  oxygen 
when  brought  in  contact  with  substances  having  a  greater  affinity 
for  it.    Example :  KCIO3. 

A  reducing  agent  is  one  which  has  the  power  to  abstract  oxygen 
from  an  oxide.    Example :  hydrogen. 

What  is  meant  by  (a)  slow  oxidation,  (b)  rapid  oxidation?     Give  an 
example  of  each. 

(a)  A  process  of  oxidation  evolving  no  light,  Example:  oxida- 
tion of  the  different  organic  substances  in  the  living  body. 

(b)  When  the  heat  generated  by  oxidation  is  sufficient  to  cause 
the  emission  of  light  and  perhaps  a  loud  report,  the  process  is  called 
rapid  oxidation,  or  combustion.  Example:  gunpowder  is  a  mix- 
ture of  sulphur,  carbon  and  potassium,  KNO3.  Upon  heating  or  ignit- 
ing this  mixture,  the  sulphur  and  carbon  are  oxidized,  and  various 
gases  (CO,  CO,,  N,  SOo,  etc.)  are  formed,  the  sudden  generation 
and  expansion  of  which  cause  the  explosion. 

Describe  a  method  of  preparing  oxygen  on  a  commercial  scale.     Write 
the  equation  to  express  the  reaction. 
Heat  to  redness  in  an  iron  vessel  manganese  dioxide  (MnOg), 
causing  it  to  decompose  into  manganous  manganic  oxide  and  oxygen. 
3MnO,  =  MugO,  +  20. 

Compare  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  oxygen  with  those 
of  hydrogen. 
Both  gases  are  colorless,  odorless  and  tasteless.     Oxygen  is  16 
times  heavier  than  hydrogen.     Oxygen  supports  combustion  but  is 
non-combustible,  whereas  hydrogen  is  combustible  but  not  a  sup- 
porter of  combustion. 

What  is  ozone?     Describe  the  preparation  of  ozone. 

Ozone  is  an  allotropic  modification  of  oxygen.  It  possesses 
a  peculiar  odor  and  is  a  stronger  oxidizing  agent  than  common  oxy- 
gen.   Its  symbol  is  O3. 

Ozone  is  prepared  by  passing  non-luminous  electric  discharges 
through  atmospheric  air  or  through  oxygen. 


18  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

NITBOGEN 

Give  (a)  the  symbol,  (b)  atomic  weight,  (c)  molecular  weight,  and 
(d)  describe  the  properties  of  nitrogen. 

(a)  N,  (b)  14.  (c)  28.  (d)  Nitrogen  is  an  odorless,  colorless, 
tasteless  gas,  neither  combustible  nor  a  supporter  of  combustion. 
It  is  distinguished  by  having  very  little  affinity  for  any  other 
element.  Nitrogen  is  not  poisonous,  but,  being  unable  to  support 
combustion,  cannot  sustain  animal  life.    In  compounds  it  is  unstable. 

What  is  the  function  of  nitrogen  in  the  air  ?  Describe  a  process  of  pre- 
paring nitrogen  from  the  air. 
It  serves  to  dilute  the  oxygen  and  has  some  important  function 
in  regard  to  plant  life. 

By  burning  phosphorus  in  a  confined  portion  of  air,  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  unites  with  the  phosphorus  and  forms  phosphorus  pen- 
toxide,  PoOg.  If  the  experiment  is  conducted  over  water,  PoOg 
unites  with  the  water,  forming  phosphoric  acid,  leaving  nitrogen  in 
the  container. 

Name  a  preparation  of  nitrogen.     Mention  the  properties  of  nitrogen. 
Ammonia,  NHg.    Properties  described  above. 

Describe  the  usual  method  of  preparing  laughing  gas.     Write  the 
equation  to  show  the  reaction. 
By  heating  ammonium  nitrate,  it  breaks  down  directly  into 
water  and  nitrous  oxide. 
NH.NOg  =  NoO  +  2H2O. 

"Name  the  oxides  of  nitrogen. 

Nitrogen  monoxide,  NoO ;  nitrogen  dioxide,  N.Oo ;  nitrogen  triox- 
ide,  NoOg ;  nitrogen  tetroxide,  N0O4 ;  nitrogen  peutoxide,  N0O5. 

Calculate  the  percentage  composition  of  HNO3.     [Atomic  weight  of 
N  =  14.J 
1  +  14  +  48  =  63,  the  molecular  weight  of  HNO3. 
1  -^  63  =  0.0158,  or  1,58  per  cent,  hydrogen. 
14  ^  63  =  0.222,  or  22.2  per  cent,  nitrogen. 
48  -^-  63  =  0.761,  or  76.1  per  cent,  oxygen. 

Mention  two  nitrates  and  give  two  uses  of  each. 

Silver  nitrate,  used  in  medicine  and  electro-plating. 
Sodium  nitrate,  used  in  fertilizers  and  in  the  preparation  of 
saltpetre. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  19 

Describe  a  method  of  preparing  nitrogen.     Compare  the  properties  of 
nitrogen  with  those  of  oxygen. 
By  passing  a  current  of  air  over  copper,  heated  to  redness, 
copper  oxide  will  be  formed  and  nitrogen  isolated. 

Nitrogen  and  oxygen  are  both  colorless,  odorless,  tasteless  gases. 
Oxygen  has  a  great  affinity  for  other  elements  and  supports  com- 
bustion; nitrogen  unites  with  very  few  elements  and  does  not 
support  life  nor  combustion. 

Describe  the  commercial  preparation  of  nitric  acid  and  write  the  reac- 
tion.   Mention  important  uses  of  nitric  acid. 
Sodium  nitrate  is  distilled  with  sulphuric  acid. 
2NaN03  +  H0SO4  =  Na^SO^  +  2HNO3. 

Nitric  acid  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  caustic  and  is  employed  in 
etching  copper  plates  for  engraving ;  it  is  also  important  in  the  refin- 
ing of  precious  metals  and  in  the  making  of  nitroglycerine,  gun 
cotton,  aniline  dyes,  etc. 

What  element  constitutes  four-fifths  of  the  air? 
Nitrogen. 

AMMONIA 

What  is  ammonia?     Give  the  source  and  uses  of  ammonia. 

Ammonia  is  a  colorless  gas,  of  a  peculiar,  characteristic  and 
very  pungent  odor.  It  is  neither  combustible  nor  a  supporter  of 
combustion.  By  weight  it  is  composed  of  13.93  parts  of  nitrogen 
and  3  parts  of  hydrogen.  It  is  very  soluble  in  water;  caustic  and 
readily  blisters  the  skin;  strongly  alkaline  in  reaction.  Formula, 
NH3. 

Sources:  Decomposition  of  organic  matter  (meat,  urine,  blood, 
etc.).  Decomposition  of  ammonium  salts  by  the  hydroxides  of 
sodium,  potassium  and  calcium,  2(NH4C1)+  Ca(0H)2  —  CaClg  + 
211,0  -j-  2NH3.  Ammonia  is  obtained,  commercially,  from  gas 
liquor,  a  by-product  of  gas  plants. 

Uses :  It  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  cardiac  stimulant  and  general 
stimulant,  also  to  increase  secretions.  In  the  household  it  is  used 
as  a  general  cleaning  agent  in  the  aqueous  form  (hartshorn). 

Explain  why  the  presence  of  free  ammonia  in  drinking  water  is  a  sign 
of  danger. 
Because   it  is  indicative   of   contamination  with   decomposing 
organic  matter. 


-o"- 


Give  the  composition  and  method  of  preparation  of  ammonium  chloride. 
It  is  composed  of  nitrogen,  hydrogen  and  chlorine,  NH^Cl.    Pre- 


20  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

pared  by  neutralizing  hydrochloric  acid  with  ammonia  water.  The 
solution  is  evaporated  and  the  crystalline  mass  remaining  is  am- 
monium chloride.    HCl  +  NH.OH  =  NH.Cl  +  H.O. 

Give  the  chemical  name  and  formula  of  two  compounds  of  ammonia. 
Ammonium  chloride,  NH^Cl,  ammonium  nitrate,  NH^NO^. 

AIR 

Name  the  important  constituents  of  air  and  give  the  approximate  per- 
centages of  each  constituent. 

By  weight  By  volume 

Nitrogen 76  77 

Oxygen 23  21 

Coo,  ammonia,  argon,  etc 1  2 

State  three  facts  tending  to  show  that  air  is  a  mixture  and  not  a 
compound. 

1.  By  artificially  mixing  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  the  proportions 
found  in  the  air,  no  energy  change  (heat)  that  indicates  chemical 
union  takes  place. 

2.  Analysis  shows  air  taken  from  different  heights  to  be  slightly 
variable. 

3.  By  passing  air  through  water  it  is  changed,  oxygen  being  more 
soluble  than  nitrogen. 

Mention  the  injurious  substances  added  to  the  air  in  breathing.     What 
per  cent,  of  carbon  dioxide  is  fatal  to  the  animal  breathing  it? 
Carbon  dioxide   and   disease   germs  are   added   to  the   air  in 
breathing. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  allow  animals  to  breathe  for  any  length 
of  time  air  containing  more  than  1  per  cent.  CO, ;  5  per  cent,  pro- 
duces insensibility,  and  8  per  cent,  causes  death  in  a  few  minutes. 

What  element  constitutes  four-fifths  of  the  air  ? 
Nitrogen. 

CARBON 

Give  (a)  the  symbol,  (b)  specific  gravity,  (c)  the  physical  and  chemical 
properties  of  carbon. 
(a)  C.  (b)  In  its  purest  form,  3.5;  graphite,  2.15;  amorphous 
forms,  1.5  to  2.  (c)  One  of  the  most  common  elements,  tasteless, 
odorless,  non-volatile,  infusible  and  insoluble  in  all  its  forms; 
black  in  color,  except  in  the  form  of  the  diamond,  and  is  combustible, 
yielding  00^.  It  unites  readily  with  a  great  many  elements,  forming 
important  compounds. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  21 

iDiscuss  the  use  of  carbon  as  a  reducing  agent. 

Carbon  is  a  very  active  reducing  agent,  because  of  its  great 
affinity  for  oxygen.  By  heating  carbon  in  the  presence  of  any 
oxide,  the  latter  is  rapidly  reduced,  its  oxygen  forming  CO  or 
COo  with  carbon. 

Mention  and  describe  three  allotropic  forms  of  carbon. 

1.  Diamond  is  the  purest  form  of  carbon,  and  is  the  hardest  sub- 
stance known.  It  occurs  in  crystals,  octahedral  in  shape.  It  is  a 
very  brilliant  gem,  owing  to  its  great  refractive  power. 

2.  Graphite,  also  known  as  plumbago,  or  black  lead,  is  a  black, 
greasy  substance  with  a  specific  gravity  of  2.15.  It  is  a  good  con- 
ductor of  heat  and  electricity.  Used  as  a  lubricant  for  machinery, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  lead  pencils,  stove  polish,  crucibles,  etc. 

3.  Amorphous  carbon  is  always  a  black  solid,  but  the  different 
kinds  vary  in  hardness  and  specific  gravity.  It  is  seen  as  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  various  kinds  of  coal ;  in  the  form  of  lamp-black 
it  is  used  in  printer's  ink;  and  occurs  in  bone-black,  which  serves  as 
a  decolorizing  agent  in  the  making  of  sugar,  syrups  and  other  liquids. 

Describe  how  each  of  the  following  may  be  prepared :  (a)  lamp-black, 
(b)  bone-black.     Mention  the  important  uses  of  each. 

(a)  Lamp-black  is  made  by  burning  tar,  rosin,  turpentine  or 
petroleum,  with  a  deficient  supply  of  air,  and  passing  the  smoke 
into  large  chambers  where  the  carbon  is  deposited.  It  is  used  in 
making  printer's  ink. 

(b)  Bone-black  is  made  by  carbonization  of  bones  of  animals 
and  is  used  as  a  decolorizing  agent, 

Give  the  important  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  carbon  dioxide. 

Carbon  dioxide  is  a  colorless,  odorless  gas  which  by  oold  and 
pressure  may  be  easily  condensed  to  a  liquid.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
1.529,  and  its  symbol,  CO,,  being  composed  of  one  volume  of  carbon 
and  two  of  oxygen.  It  is  not  combustible  and  is  not  a  good  sup- 
porter of  combustion,  in  fact  it  has  a  decided  tendency  to  extinguish 
flames.    It  unites  with  water  to  form  carbonic  acid,  II2CO3. 

Describe  the  method  of  preparing  carbon  dioxide  from  marble  and 
write  the  equation. 
By  heating  marble   (CaCOg)   or  by  adding  hydrochloric  acid, 
carbon  dioxide  is  liberated. 

CaCOg  +  heat  ^  CaO  +  CO^. 

CaCog  -f  2HC1  =  CaCl^  +  H^O  +  CO^ 


'2- 


22  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  a  simple  test  for  carbon  dioxide  and  write  the  reaction. 

Pass  the  gas  through,  lime  water  and  the  solution  becomes 
turbid. 

Ca(OH).  4-  CO2  =  CaCOs  +  H^O. 

Compare  as  to  weight,  carbon  dioxide  with  air. 

Carbon  dioxide  is  one  and  one-half  times  heavier  than  air. 

Describe  the  manufacture  of  some  carbide  and  mention  its  common  use. 
Calcium  carbide  (CaCa)  is  manufactured  on  a  commercial  scale 
by  heating,  in  an  electric  furnace,  a  mixture  of  lime  and  coal,  or 
coal  tar  (CaO  +  3C  =  CaCg  +  CO).  It  is  used  for  generating 
acetylene  gas,  which  is  formed  by  the  action  of  calcium  carbide  and 
water  ( CaC^  +  H^O  =  CoH^  +  CaO ) . 

What  is  marsh  gas?  Give  its  formula  and  chemical  importance  with 
a  method  of  preparation. 

Marsh  gas  (CH^)  is  a  colorless  gas  which  burns  readily  with  a 
bluish-yellow  flame,  emitting  much  heat  but  little  light.  In  nature 
it  is  produced  by  the  decay  of  dead  leaves  in  the  bottom  of  stagnant 
pools.  It  also  accumulates  in  coal  mines  as  the  dreaded  ' '  fire  damp ' ' 
and  mixing  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  forms  deadly  explosions.  In 
impure  form  it  is  obtained  from  wells  in  some  localities  and  is  used 
for  lighting  and  heating.  It  can  be  prepared  by  mixing  aluminum 
carbide  and  water  [Al.Cg  +  12H,0  =  3CH,  -f  4A1(0H)3]. 

Find  the  weight  of  each  of  the  products  formed  by  the  complete  com- 
bustion of  20  grammes  of  marsh  gas  (CH^).  [Atomic 
weight  of  C  =  12,  of  O  =  16.] 

CH4  -f  2O2  =  CO2  +  2H2O. 

16  :  44  =  20 :  X,  X  =  55  grammes  of  CO,. 

16  :  36  =  20 :  X,  X  =  45  grammes  of  H^O. 

Describe  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas. 

Bituminous  or  cannel  coal  is  heated  in  clay  or  brick  retorts  and 
the  products  of  distillation  pass  out  ijito  a  series  of  pipes  in  which 
water,  coal-tar,  auunonia,  etc.,  are  deposited.  The  gas  still  con- 
tains impurities,  which  are  removed  by  passing  it  over  some  absorb- 
ent substance,  such  as  slaked  lime. 

Describe  the  construction  and  operation  of  the  Bunsen  burner. 

In  a  gas  flame,  if  the  air  is  excluded,  soot  and  smoke  will  form 
copiously.  But  if  the  combustion  is  rendered  more  perfect,  no  car- 
bon is  deposited  and  the  flame  becomes  hotter,  but  less  brilliant.  In 
the  Bunsen  burner,  this  is  arranged  for  by  allowing  air  to  enter  at 
the  bottom  of  the  burner  and  become  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
gas  before  the  latter  is  ignited.     If  the  openings  through  which 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  23 

the  air  enters  are  stopped  up,  the  flame  becomes  more  luminous  and 
less  hot. 
Give  proof  of  the  fact  that  a  diamond  is  composed  of  carbon. 

A  diamond,  when  heated  intensely  in  the  presence  of  oxygen, 
burns  and  forms  carbon  dioxide. 

SULPHUR 

Mention  the  properties  and  important  uses  of  sulphur. 

Sulphur  is  ordinarily  a  yellow,  brittle  solid,  without  taste  or 
odor.  It  dissolves  in  carbon  disulphide,  but  not  in  water,  and 
combines  easily  with  most  of  the  otiier  elements.  AUotropic  forms : 
prismatic  or  monoclinic,  rhombic  oetahedra,  and  plastic.  Uses: 
Used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  matches,  sulphuric  acid, 
bleaching  agents,  in  medicine,  etc. 

Discuss  the  behavior  of  sulphur  at  different  temperatures. 

At  115°  C.  it  melts  to  a  clear,  amber-colored  liquid  which  be- 
comes viscid  as  the  temperature  rises  to  230°  C.  Above  250°  C.  it 
becomes  fluid  again  and  if  poured  into  cold  water  it  becomes  plastic 
or  ductile,  but  after  standing  a  few  days  it  returns  to  its  primary 
condition,  original  sulphur. 

Describe  the  use  of  sulphur  in  disinfecting.     Explain  its  efficiency. 

Remove  animals  from  premises.  All  openings  to  outside  air 
should  be  closed.  Three  pounds  of  flowers  of  sulphur,  mixed  with 
two  ounces  of  alcohol  and  ignited,  should  be  employed  for  every 
1000  cubic  feet  of  air  space  to  be  disinfected.  Keep  premises 
closed  for  six  hours.  Steam  introduced  into  the  apartment  together 
with  the  sulphur  fumes  is  more  efficient,  the  water  unites  with  the 
sulphurous  anhydride  to  make  the  more  potent  sulphurous  acid 
(H2SO3).  Sulphur  fumigation  is  of  little  worth  to  destroy  disease 
germs.    Formaldehyde  or  chlorine  gas  is  to  be  preferred. 

Write  the  formula  of  hydrogen  sulphide.     Describe  its  properties. 

H2S.  A  colorless  gas  with  the  peculiar  odor  of  rotten  eggs 
and  a  disgusting  taste.  It  is  soluble  in  water  and  highly  combustible 
in  the  air,  burning  with  a  blue  flame  and  forming  sulphur  dioxide 
and  water.     This  gas  is  poisonous  when  inhaled. 

Describe  a  method  of  preparing  hydrogen  sulphide. 

Prepared  by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  upon  iron 
sulphide.     (FeS  +  H^SO,  =  FeSO,  -f  H^S.) 

Describe  a  process  of  preparing  sulphuric  acid  on  a  commercial  scale. 
Mention  the  important  uses  of  sulphuric  acid. 
"Lead  chamber  process."    Sulphur  dioxide,  generated  by  the 


24  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

combustion  of  sulphur  or  by  roasting  iron  pyrites  in  a  suitable 
furnace,  is  passed  into  a  large  chamber,  or  series  of  chambers,  lined 
with  sheet  lead.  Nitrous  fumes,  produced  by  heating  sodium  nitrate 
with  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  enter  the  chamber  at  the  same  time; 
jets  of  steam  are  blown  in  at  several  points  and  a  draft  of  air  is 
kept  up  throughout.  The  sulphur  dioxide  meeting  the  nitrous  fumes 
is  oxidized  by  them  and  with  the  water  of  the  steam  forms  sulphuric 
acid. 

Uses:  Very  extensively  used  in  the  arts,  in  the  manufacture  of 
all  the  other  strong  acids,  and  fertilizers;  refining  sugar,  fats  and 
oils ;  in  galvanic  batteries,  etc. 

Write  the  graphic  formula  and  calculate  the  percentage  composition 
of  sulphuric  acid.     [Atomic  weight  of  8  =  32.] 

H-0\g^O 

H-O-^  ^O 

2  +  32  +  64  =  98,  the  molecular  weight  of  sulphuric  acid. 

2/98  or  2.04  per  cent,  hydrogen. 

32/98  or  32.65  per  cent,  sulphur. 

64/98  or  65.30  per  cent,  oxygen. 

What  is  copper  sulphate?     How  prepared? 

Copper  sulphate,  hlue  vitriol,  or  'blue  stone,  is  the  most  im- 
portant compound  of  copper.  It  is  formed  in  large,  transparent, 
deep-blue  crystals  which  are  easily  soluble  in  water  and  have  a 
nauseous,  metallic  taste.    Formula,  CuSO^. 

It  is  prepared  by  dissolving  cupric  oxide  in  sulphuric  acid, 
evaporating  and  crystallizing  the  solution. 

DISINFECTANTS  AND  ANTISEPTICS 

Differentiate  between  disinfectants  and  antiseptics. 

Disinfectants  are  agents  that  destroy  the  microorganisms  which 
cause  infectious  and  contagious  diseases,  fermentation  and  putre- 
faction. 

Antiseptics  are  agents  which  prevent  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  microorganisms  occasioning  fermentation  but  more 
especially  the  pus-producing  variety. 

What  is  a  deodorant? 

Deodorants  are  agents  which  destroy  or  counteract  a  foul  odor, 
e.g.,  phenol,  zinc  chloride  and  charcoal. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  25 

Describe  an  efficient  method  of  disinfecting  by  the  use  of  formaldehyde. 
For  every  1000  cubic  feet  of  air  space,  mix  in  a  deep  vessel  16% 
ounces  of  potassium  permanganate  with   20  ounces  of  formalin 
(a  40  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  formaldehyde).    Close  all  open- 
ings and  leave  this  mixture  in  the  room  for  3  hours  before  opening. 

PHOSPHORUS 

Give  a  description  of  phosphorus  as  to  (a)  occurrence,  (b)  physical 
properties,  (c)  source. 

(a)  Never  found  free  in  nature,  but  as  phosphates  is  an  im- 
portant constituent  of  plants,  animals  and  the  earth's  crust. 

(b)  Phosphorus  exists  in  several  allotropic  varieties,  the  more 
important  of  which  are  the  yellow  and  red.  The  yellow  variety  is  a 
yellowish-white,  waxy  solid  of  specific  gravity  1.837.  It  melts  at 
44.2°  C.  and  boils  at  263°  C. ;  is  highly  inflammable  and  oxidizes 
readily  in  the  air  at  ordinary  temperature.  It  has  a  faint  odor, 
resembling  garlic,  is  very  poisonous,  is  soluble  in  carbon  disul- 
phide  and  insoluble  in  water.  The  red  variety  is  not  easily  inflam- 
mable in  air,  has  a  density  of  2.2,  is  insoluble  in  carbon  disulphide 
and  is  not  poisonous. 

(c)  Prepared  from  bone-ash  or  from  sombrerite,  an  impure  cal- 
cium phosphate  found  in  the  West  Indian  guano. 

Mention  the  principal  uses  of  phosphorus. 

Used  in  matches,  vermin  poison,  medicine  and  fertilizers. 

Give  (a)  the  symbol,  (b)  the  valence,  (c)  atomic  weight,  (d)  moleculsir 
weight,  of  phosphorus. 

(a)  P,  (b)  3  and  5,  (c)  31,  (d)  124. 

Name  the  allotropic  forms  of  phosphorus. 
Yellow,  red,  white  and  black. 

HALOGENS 

Name  the  elements  of  the  halogen  group  and  write  the  symbol  of  each. 
Fluorine,  F ;  chlorine,  CI ;  bromine,  Br ;  iodine,  I. 

Give  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  iodine.  Describe  a  test 
for  iodine. 
Iodine  is  a  bluish-black  crystalline  substance,  with  a  metallic 
luster  and  an  odor  faintly  resembling  that  of  chlorine.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  4.95  and  its  atomic  weight  is  125.89.  Its  vapor  has  a  violet 
color.  Iodine  is  almost  insoluble  in  water  but  forms  several  im- 
portant compounds  with  other  elements. 


26  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Test:  Add  a  solution  of  starch  paste,  when  an  intensely  blue 
color  is  produced. 

Give  the  source  and  the  preparation  of  iodine. 

Iodine  was  previously  obtained  from  the  ashes  of  sea-weeds  which 
are  treated  with  water  and  the  solution  thus  obtained  is  heated  with 
manganese  dioxide  and  sulphuric  acid.  Iodine  is  set  free  by  dis- 
tillation. 

At  present,  it  is  obtained  from  NalOg,  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Chili  saltpetre. 

Mention  the  important  uses  of  iodine. 

Used  in  medicine,  photography  and  in  the  preparation  of  aniline 
dyes. 

Give  the  method  of  making  potassium  iodide.  Write  the  equation 
involved. 

Add  iodine  crystals  to  an  aqueous  solution  of  caustic  potash 
until  saturated,  then  evaporate  to  dryness;  the  residue,  which  con- 
sists of  potassium  iodide  and  iodate,  is  then  strongly  heated  to 
decompose  the  iodate,  thus  forming  iodide  with  the  liberation  of 
oxygen.  Dissolve  the  mass  in  water  and  evaporate,  when  crystals 
of  potassium  iodide  will  be  left. 

6K0H  -h  3L  =  SKI  +  KIO3  +  3H„0. 

2KIO3  +  heat  =  2KI  +  SO^. 

What  are  the  phyical  and  chemical  properties  of  chlorine.  Mention  the 
uses  and  important  compounds  of  chlorine. 

Cblorine  is  a  greenish-yellow  gas,  two  and  one-half  times  heavier 
than  air,  and  having  a  highly  irritating  odor ;  soluble  in  water  and 
convertible  into  a  liquid  by  cold  and  pressure.  It  has  a  strong 
affinity  for  other  elements  and  forms  a  number  of  important  com- 
pounds.    Its  atomic  weight  is  35.18. 

Uses:  Strong  disinfecting,  deodorizing  and  bleaching  agent  and 
its  compounds  are  valuable  medicinal  agents. 

Among  its  important  compounds  are :  sodium  chloride,  hydro- 
chloric acid,  chloral  hydrate,  calcium  chloride,  etc. 

Describe  a  method  of  preparing  chlorine  and  write  the  reaction. 

Mix  manganese  dioxide  with  hydrochloric  acid  in  a  large  flask 
provided  with  a  delivery  tube  and  heat  gently ;  chlorine  gas  will  be 
evolved. 

MnO,  +  4HC1  =  MnCl^  +  CI,  +  2IL0. 

Describe  the  preparation  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

It  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  sodium  chloride 
in  the  presence  of  heat. 

2NaCl  +  H2SO4  =  Na,SO,  -|-  2IIC1. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  27 

Mention  a  compound  of  each  of  the  halogens. 

Sodium  chloride,  potassium  iodide,  sodium  bromide  and  hydro- 
fluoric acid. 

Describe  the  properties  of  bromine  and  give  a  method  for  its  prepara- 
tion. 

At  ordinary  temperature,  bromine  is  a  heavy,  dark,  reddish- 
brown  liquid,  giving  off  yellowish-red  fumes  of  an  exceedingly 
suffocating  and  irritating  odor ;  it  is  very  volatile  and  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  2.99.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  is  a  strong  disinfecting  and 
bleaching  agent  and  acts  as  a  corrosive  poison. 

Bromine  is  prepared  by  treating  magnesium  bromide  with 
chlorine. 

MgBr,  4-  2C1=  MgCL  +  2Br. 

Give  the  properties  and  uses  in  medicine  of  bromine. 

Properties  given  above.  Sodium  and  potassium  bromide  are 
used  in  medicine  as  antispasmodics,  narcotics  and  nerve  sedatives. 

GOLD 

Give  a  test  for  gold  and  gold  compounds. 

Most  reducing  agents,  as  oxalic  acid,  ferrous  sulphate,  etc., 
precipitate  gold  from  its  solutions  as  a  dark-brown  powder, 

SILVER 

Describe  silver,  giving  names  of  its  most  important  compounds  used  in 
medicine. 
Silver  is  a  pure,  white  brilliant  metal,  a  good  conductor  of  heat 
and  electricity,  and  is  malleable  and  ductile.  It  is  univalent  and 
forms  but  one  series  of  salts.  It  is  not  affected  by  the  oxygen  of  the 
air,  but  is  readily  affected  by  traces  of  hydrogen  sulphide,  which 
forms  a  black  film  of  sulphide  upon  the  surface.  Its  atomic  weight 
is  107,  its  specific  gravity  is  10.5  and  its  symbol  is  Ag.  Compounds 
used  in  medicine  are :  silver  nitrate,  protargol,  argyrol,  collargol. 

What  is  lunar  caustic?     How  is  lunar  caustic  prepared  and  what  is 

its  medicinal  use? 

Lunar  caustic  is  nitrate  of  silver,  fused  into  round  sticks,  or 

pencils.    It  is  prepared  by  adding  4  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid  to 

silver  nitrate,  fusing  and  pouring  into  suitable  moulds.    It  is  used 

for  cauterizing  inflamed  surfaces,  warts,  etc. 

Give  a  chemical  test  for  silver. 

Add  to  a  solution  of  silver  a  solution  of  hydrogen  sulphide 
or  ammonium  sulphide,  and  a  dark-brown  precipitate  of  silver  sul- 
phide will  be  produced. 


28  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

LEAD 

Give  (a)  the  symbol,  (b)  atomic  weight,  (c)  valence,  and  (d)  the  physi- 
cal properties  of  lead. 
(a)  Pb.     (b)  205.     (e)  2  and  4.     (d)  Lead  is  a  soft,  bluish- 
white  metal;  specific  gravity,  11.38.     When  freshly  cut,  it  has  a 
bright  metallic  luster,  but  quickly  tarnishes  on  the  surface  and 
becomes  dull.    It  is  malleable  and  ductile. 

What  is  sugar  of  lead?    Give  its  pharmaceutical  name. 

Sugar  of  lead  is  a  salt  formed  by  the  action  of  acetic  acid  on 
lead  oxide.  It  forms  colorless,  shining,  transparent  crystals,  easily 
soluble  in  water,  and  has  a  sweetish,  astringent,  afterwards  metallic 
taste.    Formula,  (C2H30o)2Pb. 

Pharmaceutical  name  is  plumbi  acetate. 

MERCURY 

Describe  mercury  as  to  physical  and  chemical  properties  and  occur- 
rence in  nature. 

Mercury  is  the  only  metal  which  is  liquid  at  ordinary  tempera- 
ture ;  it  is  almost  silver- white  and  has  a  bright  metallic  lustre ;  specific 
gravity,  13.56.  Pure  mercury  does  not  tarnish  in  the  air  until  heated 
above  300°  C,  when  it  unites  with  the  oxygen  to  form  the  red  oxide. 
It  combines  directly  with  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine  and  sulphur  and 
dissolves  in  nitric  acid  and  hot  sulphuric  acid.  Its  atomic  weight 
is  198.5. 

Mercury  occurs  in  nature  in  a  free  state,  but  generally  as  mer- 
curic sulphide  (cinnabar),  a  dark-red  mineral. 

Name  the  compounds  of  mercury  used  in  medicine. 

Mercuric  oxide,  mercuric  and  mercurous  chloride,  mercuric 
iodide,  massa  hydrargyri,  unguentum  hydrargyri,  hydrargyri  cum 
creta. 

Write  the  formula  of  each  of  the  following:  (a)  mercurous  chloride, 
(b)  mercuric  chloride.  Mention  the  common  name  and  im- 
portant properties  of  each. 

(a)  Hg^CL,,  calomel,  is  a  cholagogue  cathartic,  intestinal  anti- 
septic and  diuretic.    The  formula  is  commonly  Avritten,  IlgCl. 

(b)  HgCL,  corrosive  sublimate,  is  a  violent  poison,  antiseptic, 
and  alterative. 

Write  the  chemical  equation  representing  the  preparation  of  calomel. 
HgSO,  +  Hg  +  2NaCl  =  Na.SO,  -f  2IIgCl. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  29 

METALS  OP  THE  ALKALIES 

Name  three  important  elements  of  the  alkali  group  of  metals. 
Potassium,  sodium,  lithium. 

Name  three  important  potassium  salts.     Give  in  regard  to  each  salt 
named:  (a)  its  formula,  (b)  its  principal  uses  in  medicine. 
Potassium  chlorate,  KCIO3,  antiseptic,  refrigerant,  sialogogue, 
and  diuretic. 

Potassium  nitrate,  KNO3,  diuretic  and  antipyretic. 
Potassium  bicarbonate,  KHCO3,  antacid  and  sedative  in  gastric 
disorders. 
Name  five  sodium  salts  used  in  medicine  and  write  the  chemical  formula 
of  each. 
Sodium  bicarbonate,  NaHCOg ;  sodium  chloride,  NaCl;  sodium 
sulphate,    Na,SO4,10H2O ;    sodium    phosphate,    Na2HP04,12H20 ; 
sodium  carbonate,  Na2CO3,10H2O. 

Describe  the  chemical  action  of  liquid  caustics  on  the  tissues  of  the 

body. 

The  liquid  caustics   (sodium  hydroxide,  potassium  hydroxide) 

have  a  great  affinity  for  water  and  in  abstracting  same  from  the 

tissues,  a  great  amount  of  heat  is  produced,  which  coagulates  the 

albumin. 

Mention  the  metals  of  the  sodium  group  and  describe  the  process  of 
manufacturing  sodium  carbonate. 

Potassium,  sodium,  lithium,  rubidium  and  ceesium. 

The  Solvay  process  for  manufacturing  sodium  carbonate  depends 
upon  the  fact  that  when  carbon  dioxide  is  passed  into  a  solution  of 
common  salt,  in  aqueous  ammonia,  sodium  bicarbonate  is  formed, 
thus: 

NH3  +  CO.  +  NaCl  +  H^O  =  NaHCOg  +  NH.Cl. 

The  bicarbonate  of  soda  (NaHCOa),  being  slightly  soluble,  is 
deposited  in  large  quantities  and  is  converted  into  ordinary  car- 
bonate by  heating. 

CALCIUM   GROUP 

Name  the  elements  of  the  calcium  group  and  give  their  general  charac- 
teristics. 
Magnesium,  calcium,  strontium,  barium  and  radium.  They  are 
alkaline  in  character  and  form  oxides  and  salts  whose  properties 
somewhat  resemble  the  metals  of  the  alkalies.  They  are  white  in 
color  and  fusible  only  above  a  red  heat;  all  oxidize  readily  in  the 
air;  all  are  malleable  and  ductile. 


30  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  process  of  preparing  lime  water  from  lime  stone.  Write 
the  reactions. 

By  heating  lime  stone,  CO2  is  driven  off  and  calcium  oxide 
obtained.  One  part  of  calcium  oxide  is  slaked  and  agitated  occasion- 
ally during  half  an  hour  with  30  parts  of  water.  The  mixture  is 
then  allowed  to  settle  and  the  liquid,  containing,  besides  calcium 
hydroxide,  the  salts  of  the  alkali  metals  which  may  have  been  pres- 
ent in  the  lime,  is  decanted  and  thrown  away.  To  the  calcium 
hydroxide  left,  and  thus  purified,  300  parts  of  water  are  added 
and  occasionally  shaken  in  a  well-stoppered  bottle,  from  which  the 
clear  liquid  may  be  poured  off  for  use. 

CaCOg  +  heat  =  CaO  +  CO.,  etc. 

CaO  +  H20  =  Ca(OH)2. 

Ca(OH)o  +  3OOH2O  =  lime  water. 

Describe  with  explanation  the  manufacture  of  plaster  of  Paris. 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  made  by  heating  native  calcium  sulphate 
(gypsum)  and  depriving  it  of  part  of  its  water. 

2(CaSO„2H20)-|-heat  =  2CaS04.H20  (plaster  of  Paris)  and 
3H2O. 

What  is  gypsum? 

It  is  native  calcium  sulphate,  CaS04,2H20,  and  occurs  abund- 
antly in  nature  in  white  translucent  masses. 

Describe  magnesium.  Name  its  principal  compounds  used  in  medicine 
and  write  the  chemical  formula  of  each  compound  named. 
Magnesium  is  a  brilliant,  almost  silver-white  alkaline  metal  with 
a  specific  gravity  of  1.74.  It  is  tenacious  and  ductile;  dissolves 
readily  in  dilute  acids,  forming  salts.  It  is  easily  combustible  and 
burns  with  an  intensely  brilliant  light,  and  is  used  in  photography 
for  flashlight  purposes. 

Compounds  used  in  medicine :  oxide,  MgO,  known  as  magnesia ; 
carbonate,  MgCOg;  sulphate   (Epsom  salts),  MgSO^,7IIoO. 

Describe  the  method  of  preparing  Epom  salts.     Write  the  formula  of 

Epsom  salts. 

Prepared  by  treating  magnesium  carbonate  with  sulphuric  acid 

and  evaporating  the  solution  to  the  crystallizing  point.    MgCOg  -j- 

H,S04  =  MgSO^  +  H,0  -f  COo.    Formula  of  Epsom  salts,  MgSO,,- 

7HoO. 

Name  and  give  the  formula  of  a  compound  of  barium  used  in  medicine. 
Barium  chloride,  BaCL. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  31 

ZINC 

Name  three  preparations  of  zinc  that  are  used  in  medicine  and  write 
the  chemical  formula  of  each. 
Zinc  sulphate,  ZnSO^ ;  zinc  chloride,  ZnCL ;  zinc  oxide,  ZnO. 

Describe  a  method  of  preparing  zinc  sulphate. 
Dissolve  zinc  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 
HoSO^  +  Zn  =  ZnSO^  +  2H. 

How  can  Epsom  salts  be  distinguished  from  zinc  sulphate? 

By  testing  with  potassium  f errocyanide.  Zinc  ferrocyanide  will 
be  thrown  down  as  a  white  precipitate.  No  precipitate  is  formed 
with  magnesium. 

BORON 

Give  the  names  of  the  principal  compounds  and  the  chemical  impor- 
tance in  medicine  of  boron. 
Boric  acid,  H3BO3. 

Sodium  borate,  NaoB^O^jlOHoO  (borax). 

Boric  acid  and  borax  are  mild,  harmless,  non-irritating  anti- 
septics and  are  very  serviceable  in  surgery. 

ALUMINUM 

Give  the  properties  of  aluminum  and  mention  its  important  salts. 

Aluminum  is  a  bluish-white,  brilliant  metal;  malleable  and 
ductile ;  specific  gravity,  2.583.  It  is  an  excellent  conductor  of  heat 
and  electricity.  It  oxidizes  superficially  in  the  air  and  has  the 
valuable  properties  of  strength  and  lightness  combined. 

Aliuninum  sulphate  is  its  most  important  salt.  This  combines 
with  the  sulphates  of  the  alkaline  metals  to  form  a  class  of  double 
salts,  known  as  alums.    Potassium  alum  is  the  commonest  example. 

BISMUTH 

Give  (a)  the  symbol,  (b)  atomic  weight,  (c)  occurrence  in  nature,  and 
(d)  the  compounds  used  in  medicine  of  bismuth. 

(a)  Bi.  (b)  206.5.  (c)  Rare,  occurs  as  an  oxide  and  sulphide. 
(d)  Bismuth  subnitrate,  subgallate,  subcarbonate,  subsalicylate  and 
citrate. 

IRON 

How  does  iron  occur  in  nature? 

Iron  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  nearly  all  forms  of  rocks, 
clay,  sand  and  earth,  and  in  plants  and  blood.    Rarely  found  free 


32  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

in  nature  except  in  meteoric  masses,  but  is  very  abundant  in  certain 
ores,  viz.,  magnetite,  hematite  and  siderite. 

Give  the  physical   and   chemical   difference  between   cast  iron  and 

wrought  iron. 

Cast  iron  is  brittle  and  cannot  be  welded  or  forged.    It  contains 

two,  three  or  more  per  cent,  of  carbon.     AVrought  iron  fuses  with 

difficulty  and  is  tough,  fibrous  and  can  be  welded.     It  contains 

1.6  per  cent,  or  less  of  carbon. 

Describe  briefly  the  Bessemer  process. 

The  Bessemer  process  of  making  steel  from  cast  iron,  which 
is  accomplished  by  removing  the  carbon  from  the  latter,  is  as  follows : 
melted  pig  iron  (cast  iron)  is  poured  into  an  egg-shaped  vessel, 
called  a  ' '  converter, ' '  through  which  a  powerful  blast  of  air  can  be 
blown.  The  converter  is  made  of  the  strongest  wrought  iron  and  is 
lined  with  an  infusible  layer  of  fire  clay.  As  the  air  bubbles  through 
the  molten  iron,  being  forced  in  from  below,  the  temperature  rises 
and  silicon  and  carbon  are  burned  away.  Spiegeleisen  is  added  to 
supply  the  proper  amount  of  carbon  for  good  steel.  The  molten 
mass  is  then  poured  into  moulds. 

Mention  three  important  ores  of  iron. 

Magnetic  oxide,  FcgO^;  hematite,  Fe^O^;  and  siderite,  FeCOg. 

Give  the  common  name,  the  chemical  name  and  the  chemical  formula  of 
three  compounds  of  iron. 

1.  Copperas,  or  green  vitriol,  ferrous  sulphate,  FeSO^. 

2.  Chloride  of  iron,  ferric  chloride,  FeXl^. 

3.  Carbonate  of  iron,  ferrous  carbonate,  FeCOg. 

Give  the  chemical  equation  showing  the  preparation  of  ferrous  sulphate. 
Give  the  common  names  of  ferrous  sulphate  and  state  its 
uses  in  medicine. 
Fco  +  2H,S0,  ==  2FeS0,  +  2H,.  Fe,S0„7II,0,  copperas,  green 
vitriol  or  ferrous  sulphate,  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  hematiuic,  astrin- 
gent, vermicide  and  disinfectant. 

What  is  reduced  iron  and  how  is  it  made? 

It  is  a  very  fine,  grayish-black,  lusterless  powder,  without  odor 
or  taste ;  permanent  in  dry  air,  insoluble  in  water  or  alcohol. 

Made  by  passing  hydrogen  gas  over  freshly  made,  and  carefully 
washed,  ferric  oxide,  in  a  hot  and  closed  tube. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  33 

AESENIC 

Give  the  properties  of  arsenic  and  name  some  of  the  compounds  of 
arsenic  used  in  medicine. 

Arsenic  is  an  odorless,  tasteless,  steel-blaek  non-metal  with  a 
metallic  appearance.  It  is  very  brittle  and  volatilizes  unchanged 
and  without  melting  when  heated  to  180°  C.  without  access  of  air. 
In  the  air  it  burns  with  a  bluish-white  light  and  gives  forth  an  odor 
which  resembles  that  of  garlic;  insoluble  in  water;  occurs  as  an 
opaque  powder  or  in  irregular  masses. 

Compounds  of  arsenic  used  in  medicine:  Fowler's  solution, 
arsenious  acid,  arsenious  iodide  and  sodium  arsenate. 

Write  the  chemical  formula  of  white  arsenic.     State  the  occurrence  of 
arsenic  in  nature. 
White  arsenic,  or  arsenious  acid,  AS2O3. 

Arsenic  sometimes  occurs  in  nature  in  the  native  state,  but 
generally  as  a  sulphide  or  oxide. 

Describe  the  making  of  one  preparation  of  arsenic  that  is  used  in 
medicine. 

Fowler's  solution,  liquor  potassii  arsenitis.  Dissolve  one  part 
arsenious  oxide  and  two  parts  of  potassium  bicarbonate  in  ten  parts 
of  distilled  water  by  boiling.  Add.  enough  distilled  water  to  make 
ninety-seven  parts  and  then  add  three  parts  of  compound  tincture 
of  lavender.    Filter  through  paper. 

Give  Marsh's  test  for  arsenic.  What  other  element  gives  a  similar 
reaction?    How  may  these  two  be  distinguished? 

Make  a  hydrogen  generator  with  a  flask  containing  zinc  and 
hydrochloric  acid.  Ignite  the  hydrogen  escaping  through  the  tube. 
Pour  into  the  generating  flask  a  few  drops  of  any  compound  of 
arsenic.  Hold  a  piece  of  cold  porcelain  against  the  flame,  and  a 
black,  mirror-like  stain  of  metallic  arsenic  will  be  deposited  upon  it. 

Antimony  compounds  give  a  similar  reaction.  The  arsenic  stain 
is  soluble  in  a  solution  of  sodium  hypochlorite,  whereas,  the  anti- 
mony stain  is  not. 

Mention  a  common  substance  containing  arsenic. 

Paris  green.  Arsenic  is  also  found  in  lead  shot,  it  being  used  to 
harden  the  same. 

How  should  the  contents  of  the  stomach  be  examined  for  the  presence 
of  arsenic? 
Examine  under  the  microscope  for  solid  arsenious  oxide.    Then 
apply  ^Marsh's  test  given  above. 
3 


34  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

ANTIMONY 

Name  the  preparation  of  antimony  used  in  medicine. 

Antimony  1-potassium  tartrate,  commonly  called  tartar  emetic. 

Organic  Chemistry 

What  is  organic  chemistry? 

Organic  chemistry  is  the  chemistry  of  the  carbon  compounds  or 
the  chemistry  of  the  hydrocarbons  and  their  derivatives. 

Differentiate  between  hydrocarbons  and  carbohydrates. 

Hydrocarbons  are  compounds  of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  as 
methane,   CH^. 

Carbohydrates  are  compounds  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen,  the  two  latter  elements  being  present  in  the  same 
relative  atomic  proportion  as  in  water,  e.g.,  grape  sugar,  CeH^oOc. 

Name  four  elements  that  enter  into  the  formation  of  most  organic 
bodies. 
Carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 

Give  the  difference  between  essential  oils  and  fixed  oils. 

Essential  oils  are  derived  from  plants  and  belong  to  the  class 
of  compounds  known  as  terpenes.  They  generally  bear  the  em- 
pirical formula  CioHg  and  are  volatile  liquids.  They  do  not  form 
glycerine  when  treated  with  an  alkali. 

Fixed  oils  are  the  true  fats  and  are  composed  of  the  glyceryl 
radical  combined  with  a  fat  acid  radical.  They  form  soap  when 
treated  with  an  alkali. 

How  does  gallic  acid  differ  from  tannic  acid?     What  £U"e  the  tests  for 
differentiating  the  same? 
Gallic  acid  does  not  coagulate  albumin^  nor  precipitate  alkaloids, 
gelatin  or  starch;  whereas,  tannic  acid  does. 

To  a  dilute  solution  (1-100)  of  tannic  acid  add  a  small  quantity 
of  lime  water.  A  pale,  bluish-white,  flocculent  precipitate  is  formed, 
which  is  not  dissolved  on  shaking  (difference  from  gallic  acid),  but 
becomes  more  copious  and  of  a  deeper  blue  than  pinkish  by  the  addi- 
tion of  an  excess  of  lime  water. 

FERMENTATION  AND  PUTREFACTION 

Why  are  organic  substances  liable  to  decay? 

Because  they  are  composed  of  combustible  elements  (carbon 
and  hydrogen)  which  readily  oxidize,  forming  carbon  dioxide  and 
water.  Organic  substances  offer  the  proper  environment  for  the 
incubation  of  bacteria. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  35 

Name  the  principal  salts  of  acetic  acid  and  state  which  of  the  salts 
named  are  used  in  veterinary  medicine. 
The  acetates  of  potassium,  lead,  ammonium,  sodium,  zinc  and 
copper.    The  first  five  named  are  used  in  veterinary  medicine. 

What  is  vinegar?     How  made? 

Vinegar  is  dilute  acetic  acid  (about  6  per  cent.).  It  is  made  by 
the  oxidation  of  fermented  juices  (wine,  cider).  This  oxidation  is 
greatly  facilitated  by  the  enzyme  ' '  MyeodermfP  aceti. ' '  Vinegar  is 
also  made  artificially  by  adding  coloring  and  odoriferous  substances 
to  dilute  acetic  acid. 

ALCOHOLS 

State  briefly  the  method  of  preparation  of  alcohol.  Give  the  properties 
and  the  principal  uses  of  alcohol. 

Ethyl  alcohol  is  prepared  by  the  fermentation  of  grape  sugar 
(glucose) .  To  a  solution  of  grape  sugar,  a  certain  yeast  (ferment)  is 
added  which  causes  the  decomposition  of  the  sugar,  yielding  carbon 
dioxide  and  ethyl  alcohol.  Alcohol  boils  at  a  much  lower  tempera- 
ture than  water  and  therefore  it  can  be  readily  separated  by  dis- 
tillation. 

CeHi.Oe  =  2C0o  +  2C2H5OH  (ethyl  alcohol). 

Methyl  alcohol  ( CH3OH )  is  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  wood. 

Pure  ethyl  alcohol  is  a  transparent,  colorless,  volatile  liquid,  of 
a  characteristic,  rather  agreeable  odor,  and  a  burning  taste.  It  is 
very  soluble  in  water,  for  which  it  has  a  great  affinity.  It  is  used  in 
medicine  in  the  preparation  of  tinctures,  extracts  and  fluidextraets, 
and  widely  used  in  the  arts. 

What  is  the  difference  between  an  alcohol  and  an  aldehyde? 

An  aldehyde  is  derived  from  an  alcohol  by  dehydrating  the 
latter,  hence  it  contains  less  hydrogen  than  an  alcohol.  Aldehydes 
are  unstable  (except  formaldehyde),  very  volatile  liquids  having 
a  peculiar  odor,  e.g.,  liquor  formaldehydi. 

Give  the  formula  for  (a)  ethyl  alcohol,  (b)  methyl  alcohol.  Which  is 
used  for  internal  purposes  ? 

(a)  C0H5OH,  used  internally. 

(b)  ckgOH. 

What  is  absolute  alcohol? 

Alcohol  containing  not  more  than  one  per  cent,  of  water. 

Compare  wine  and  brandy  in  respect  to  composition. 

"Wine,  according  to  the  variety,  contains  from  6  to  22  per  cent, 
alcohol.    Brandy  contains  from  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 


36  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

CHLOROFORM 

How  is  chloroform  prepared?     Write  the  formula  of  chloroform. 

Chloroform  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  chlorinated  lime  on 
alcohol,  or  the  purest  from  chloral.    Formula,  CHCI3. 

Give  the  properties  of  chloroform. 

Chloroform  is  a  heavy,  colorless  liquid  of  a  characteristic  ethereal 
odor,  a  burning,  sweet  taste,  and  a  neutral  reaction ;  it  is  but  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  water,  but  miscible  with  alcohol  and  ether  in  all 
proportions.  It  evaporates  rapidly  at  all  temperatures.  Specific 
gravity,  about  1.48. 

IODOFORM 

State  the  derivation  of  iodoform. 

Iodoform  is  a  derivative  of  methane,  CH^,  in  which  three  atoms 
of  hydrogen  have  been  replaced  by  three  atoms  of  iodine.  It  is 
made  by  heating  together  an  aqueous  solution  of  an  alkali  car- 
bonate, iodine  and  alcohol,  until  the  brown  color  of  iodine  has  disap- 
peared ;  on  cooling,  iodoform  is  deposited  in  yellow  scales,  which  are 
washed  and  dried  between  filter  paper. 

Give  the  chemical  formula  and  uses  of  iodoform. 

CHI3.  It  is  used  in  surgery  as  an  antiseptic  for  wound  dress- 
ings, also  for  its  slight  local  anaesthetic  effect. 

CHLORAL 

Describe  chloral. 

Chloral  is  a  colorless,  oily  liquid,  with  a  penetrating  odor  and 
an  acrid  taste;  soluble  in  water;  specific  gravity,  1.5.  Formula, 
C2HCI3O. 

How  is  chloral  hydrate  made?    Mention  its  principal  uses  in  medicine. 
Chloral  hydrate  is  made  by  adding  chloral  to  water,  forming 
crystals.    It  is  used  in  medicine  for  its  hypnotic  effect. 

What  is  the  difference  between  chloral  hydrate  and  chloroform? 

Chloral  hydrate,  C0HCI3O. 

Chloroform,  CHCL. 

Chloral  hydrate  is  freely  soluble  in  water;  chloroform  is  only 
sparingly  so.  Chloral  hydrate  is  a  crystalline  mass  and  volatilizes 
slowly  at  ordinary  temperatures,  whereas  chloroform  is  a  liquid 
and  volatizes  rapidly  at  all  temperatures. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  37 

PHENOLS 

Give  the  composition  and  the  properties  of  phenol. 

Pure  phenol,  CgHgOH,  occurs  in  colorless  crystals  which  are 
deliquescent  and  soluble  in  fixed  oils,  glycerine  and  water.  It  has 
a  characteristic,  aromatic  odor ;  when  diluted,  it  has  a  sweetish  and 
afterward  burning,  caustic  taste  and  produces  a  benumbing  and 
caustic  effect  and  even  blisters  on  the  skin.  It  is  strongly  poisonous 
and  a  powerful  disinfectant. 

What  is  phenol?     For  what  is  it  used  and  from  what  is  it  obtained? 

See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Phenol  is  used  in  surgery  for  its  germicidal,  antiseptic  and  slight 
anesthetic  effects.  Used  as  a  disinfectant  and  deodorant  in  cess- 
pools, stables,  etc.  It  is  obtained  by  fractional  distillation  of  crude 
carbolic  acid  which  is  obtained  during  the  distillation  of  coal-tar. 

What  is  salol  ?     Give  its  properties  and  uses. 

Salol,  a  compound  of  salicylic  acid  and  phenol,  is  a  white,  crystal- 
line, almost  tasteless  powder,  with  a  faintly  aromatic  odor;  nearly 
insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  is 
made  by  the  action  of  suitable  dehydrating  agents  upon  a  mixture 
of  phenol  and  salicylic  acid.  It  is  used  as  an  antirheumatic,  anti- 
pyretic and  intestinal  antiseptic. 

PETROLEUM 

What  is  petroleum?     Name  the  important  derivatives  of  petroleum 
used  in  medicine. 

Petroleum  is  a  product  of  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter, 
mostly  of  the  fats  and  oils  of  fish  and  other  aquatic  animals.  It  is 
a  mixture  of  the  various  liquid  and  solid  paraffins,  often  containing 
in  solution  the  gaseous  and  solid  members  of  this  group  and  also 
small  quantities  of  coloring  and  other  matters. 

Derivatives  used  in  medicine:  petrolatum  (cosmoline,  vaseline) 
and  liquid  petrolatum. 

Mention  the  source  and  important  properties  of  vaseline. 

Vaseline  is  obtained  from  petroleum  by  distilling  off  the  lighter 
and  more  volatile  portion  and  purifying  the  residue.  It  is  a  fat- 
like mass,  varying  in  color  from  yellowish-white  to  light  amber, 
slightly  fluorescent,  odorless  and  tasteless;  when  heated  it  gives 


38  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

off  a  faint  odor  of  petroleum.     Used  principally  as  a  base  for 
ointments. 

What  is  glycerine?     How  is  glycerine  prepared?     Give  its  chemical 
formula. 
Glycerine,  a  trihydroxyl  alcohol,  is  a  colorless,  syrupy  liquid, 
with  a  specific  gravity  of  1.28.    It  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  super- 
heated steam  and  an  alkali  upon  fats,  causing  a  splitting  of  the 
fats  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerine.    Formula,  CaH-(0H)3. 

Mention  the  sources  from  which  each  of  the  following  is  obtained: 
(a)  acetic  acid,  (b)  lactic  acid,  (c)  tartaric  acid. 

(a)  From  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood  and  the  fermen- 
tation of  alcohol. 

(b)  From  lactic  fermentation  of  sugar;  certain  bacteria  in  milk 
produce  the  enzyme. 

(c)  Obtained  from  the  deposit  occurring  in  the  fermentation  of 
wine. 

ALKALOIDS 

What  is  an  alkaloid?  State  the  properties  of  a  vegetable  alkaloid. 
Mention  three  alkaloids. 
An  alkaloid  is  an  alkaline  or  basic  principle  of  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal origin.  Alkaloids  combine  with  acids  to  form  salts.  Vegetable 
alkaloids  show  the  characteristic  physiologic  properties  of  the  sub- 
stance from  which  they  are  derived.  They  are  usually  crystalline, 
white,  with  a  bitter  taste,  and  odorless,  except  those  which  are  vola- 
tile. They  are  insoluble  in  alkalies,  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but 
readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether  and  chloroform.  They  are  all  more 
or  less  toxic. 

Strychnia,  from  nux  vomica;  morphia,  from  opium;  atropia, 
from  belladonna. 

Mention  a  chemical  antidote  for  alkaloids  and  explain  why  it  acts  as  an 
antidote. 
Tannin  forms  an  insoluble  tannate  with  nearly  all  alkaloids. 

TOXICOLOGY 

What  is  a  poison? 

A  i)oison  is  any  substance  applied  to  the  body,   ingested,  or 
developed  within  the  body,  which  causes  or  may  cause  disease. 

Give  a  classification  of  poisons  and  an  example  of  each  class  named. 

1.  Irritant  poisons,  as  caustic  potash,  phenol  and  caustic  acids. 

2.  Neurotic  poisons,  as  opium,  belladonna  and  strychnine. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  39 

Define  ptomaines  and  state  how  they  are  produced. 

Ptomaines  are  the  alkaloidal  or  basic  products  of  the  putrefac- 
tion of  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  They  are  produced  by  the  action 
of  bacteria  on  nitrogenous  matter. 

Distinguish  between  physiological,  chemical  and  mechanical  antidotes 
and  give  an  example  of  each. 

A  physiological  antidote  does  not  act  directly  upon  the  poison 
but  produces  physiological  effects  opposite  to  that  of  the  poison. 
Example :  strychnine  as  an  antidote  to  opium  poisoning. 

A  chemical  antidote  is  one  which  changes  the  chemical  nature  of 
the  poison,  rendering  it  inert.  Example :  sulphates  in  lead  poison- 
ing form  insoluble  lead  sulphate. 

A  mechanical  antidote  is  one  that  prevents  the  absorption  of  the 
poison.     Example:  stomach  pump,  mucilaginous  drinks. 

Name  three  metallic  poisons  and  mention  an  antidote  for  each. 
Lead :  antidote,  magnesium  sulphate. 
Mercury:  antidote,  albumin. 
Copper:  antidote,  potassium  ferrocyanide. 

Name  the  antidotes  that  should  be  prescribed  in  case  of  poisoning  by 
(a)  caustic  alkalies,  (b)  mineral  acids,  (c)  mercuric  chloride. 

(a)  Vinegar,  olive  oil,  demulcent  drinks,  lemon  juice. 

(b)  Sodium  bicarbonate,  lime  water,  soap. 

(c)  Egg  albumin,  flour  and  water. 

Give  the  treatment  for  strychnine  poisoning  in  the  dog. 

Produce  vomiting  at  once;  give  tannin;  place  patient  under 
ether,  chloral  or  potassium  bromide  for  a  few  hours. 

Name  the  antidotes  for  phosphorous  poisoning. 

Copper  sulphate,  turpentine,  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  potassium 
permanganate.    Never  use  oils. 

Mention  a  chemical  antidote  for  arsenic  and  explain  its  action. 

Freshly  prepared  hydrated  oxide  of  iron  forms  the  insoluble 
ferric  arsenite  or  arsenate. 

Give  treatment  in  case  of  poisoning  by  Paris  green. 

Same  as  arsenic.  See  preceding  answer.  Empty  stomach;  give 
oils  and  mucilaginous  drinks  as  well  as  stimulants. 

Give  the  chemical  antidotes  for  (a)  zinc  salts,  (b)  lead  salts. 

(a)  Solution  of  tannin  (or  strong  tea)  forms  the  insoluble 
tannate  of  zinc. 


40  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

(b)  Magnesium  sulphate  forms  the  insoluble  sulphate  of  lead. 
In  chronic  lead  poisoning,  give  potassium  iodide  liberally. 

Mention  precautions  to  be  observed  in  case  of  poisoning  by  mineral 
acids. 
Avoid  stomach  tube,  as  it  might  perforate  the  softened  oesopha- 
gus.   Neutralize  the  acids  before  producing  vomiting. 

What  is  the  treatment  for  carbolic  acid  poisoning? 

Give  Epsom  salts,  or  neutralize  with  alcohol,  and  produce  vomit- 
ing with  apomorphine  or  use  the  stomach  piunp.  Opiates  relieve 
pain. 

Physiological  Chemistry 

Define  physiological  chemistry. 

Physiological  chemistry  is  that  part  of  chemistry  which  has 
more  especially  for  its  object  the  various  chemical  changes  which 
take  place  in  the  living  organism  of  either  plants  or  animals. 

Define  the  terms  metabolism,  catabolism  and  anabolism. 

Metabolism  refers  to  the  various  chemical  changes  occurring  in 
the  living  body,  due  to  the  action  of  enzymes,  bacteria,  and  the 
living  cell  activity. 

Catabolism  is  destructive  metabolism,  or  the  conversion  of  mat- 
ter, especially  protoplasm,  into  a  lower  state  of  organization  and 
ultimately  into  waste  products. 

Anabolism  is  constructive  metabolism,  or  the  change  of  matter 
from  a  lower  to  a  higher  state  of  organization ;  especially  the  conver- 
sion of  matter  into  protoplasm. 

Define  isotonic,  hypo-isotonic  and  hyperisotonic  solutions. 

Isotonic  is  a  condition  in  which  the  tension  in  two  substances, 
or  solutions,  is  the  same,  that  is,  the  osmotic  pressure  is  equal,  e.g., 
physiologic  salt  solution  is  isotonic  with  blood. 

Hypo-isotonic  refers  to  a  solution  having  a  lesser  osmotic  power 
than  another. 

Hyperisotonic  refers  to  a  solution  having  a  greater  osmotic  power 
than  another.  A  solution  of  salt  in  greater  proportion  than  is 
present  in  a  physiological  salt  solution  would  be  hyperisotonic  to 
blood.  Such  a  solution  if  mixed  with  blood  would  cause  hsemolysis 
and  other  changes. 

What  is  a  physiologic  salt  solution? 

It  is  a  solution  of  sodium  chloride  of  a  certain  strength  (0.6  to 
0.9  per  cent.)  which  is  isotonic  with  blood. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  41 

Define  (a)  osmosis,  (b)  diffusion. 

(a)  Osmosis  is  the  phenomenon  of  the  passage  of  certain  fluids 
through  a  porous  substance,  usually  an  animal  membrane. 

(b)  Diffusion  is  the  gradual  interchange  of  the  particles  of  mis- 
cible  liquids  when  brought  together. 

CARBOHYDRATES 

Define  carbohydrates.    How  do  they  differ  from  hydrocarbons?     Give 
an  example  of  each. 

Carbohydrates  are  organic  compounds  composed  of  hydrogen, 
carbon  and  oxygen ;  hydrogen  and  oxygen  usually  being  present  in 
the  same  proportion  as  in  water.    Example :  glucose,  CsH^oOe- 

A  hydrocarbon  is  an  organic  compound  composed  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen.    Example:  methane,  CH^. 

Mention  carbohydrates  that  are  common  food  for  horses  and  cattle. 

Starches,  sugars  and  gums  which  are  present  in  large  propor- 
tions in  nearly  all  the  common  feeding-stuffs. 

FATS 

Define  fats.     Give  the  names  of  three  fats. 

Fats  are  compounds  of  the  glyceryl  radical  and  a  fat  acid 
radical.  They  are  formed  by  glycerine  and  a  fat  acid,  and  consist 
of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  are  insoluble  in  water,  slightly 
soluble  in  cold  alcohol,  easily  soluble  in  ether.  In  a  pure  state, 
all  fats  are  odorless,  colorless,  tasteless  substances,  and  stain  paper 
permanently. 

Palmitin,  stearin  and  olein  are  the  principal  animal  fats. 

What  is  soap?     Describe  a  laboratory  method  of  preparing  soap. 

Soap  is  a  compound  of  one  or  more  fatty  acids  with  an  alkali. 
It  is  usually  prepared  by  the  direct  action  of  caustic  soda  or 
potash  upon  fats. 

MILK 

What  is  the  composition  of  normal  cow's  milk? 

The  average  composition  may  be  given  as  follows: 

Water 871.7 

Solids 128.3 

Albumins 35.5 

Fats 36.9 

Lactose 48.8 

Salts .,.  7.1 


42  VETERINAKY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  process  of  determining  the  per  cent,  of  butter  fat  in  a 
specimen  of  milk. 
Take  20  c.c.  of  milk  and  add  to  it  a  small  amount  of  a  sodium 
hydrate  solution.  Extract  the  fat  by  adding  80  c.c.  of  ether  which 
has  been  saturated  with  water.  This  is  done  by  shaking  in  a  tightly 
closed  bottle.  After  the  ethereal  extract  has  entirely  separated, 
60  c.c.  are  placed  in  a  weighed  beaker,  and  the  ether  allowed  to 
evaporate ;  the  residue  is  dried  and  weighed.  The  result  is  calculated 
out  for  80  c.c.  of  the  ethereal  extract,  corresponding  to  20  c.c.  of 
milk. 

Describe  briefly  the  cause  of  the  souring  of  milk  and  the  changes 
thereby  produced. 
The  lactic  acid  bacteria  act  upon  the  lactose,  forming  lactic  acid 
which  renders  the  milk  sour  and  coagulates  the  caseinogen,  the  curd. 
The  milk  becomes  acid  in  reaction,  the  curd  settles  as  a  thick,  jelly- 
like mass,  leaving  a  watery  fluid,  the  whey,  above. 

Give  the  requirements  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  regard  to  milk 
composition. 
Milk  must  contain  twelve  per  cent,  solids,  of  which  three  per  cent, 
must  be  butter  fat. 

Give  the  Pennsylvania  State  requirements  for  milk  composition. 

Milk  must  contain  not  less  than  12.5  per  cent,  solids,  of  which 
3  per  cent,  must  be  fat. 

URINE 

Describe  a  test  for  sugar  in  the  urine. 

Place  some  Fehling's  solution  in  a  test  tube  and  boil  it.  If  no 
discoloration  takes  place,  it  is  suitable  for  the  test.  Add  a  few 
drops  of  the  suspected  urine  and  boil.  If  the  mixture  suddenly 
turns  to  an  opaque  yellow  or  red  color,  the  presence  of  sugar  is 
indicated. 

Give  a  test  for  albumin  in  the  urine. 

To  a  small  amount  of  nitric  acid  in  a  test  tube,  gently  pour  upon 
the  surface  some  of  the  suspected  urine.  If  albumin  is  present, 
a  ring  of  white  coagulum  occurs  at  the  junction  of  the  two  fluids. 

Describe  a  method  of  detecting  the  presence  of  bile  in  the  urine. 

Agitate  a  few  drops  of  chloroform  with  the  suspected  urine 
in  a  test  tube.    If  bile  be  present,  the  chloroform  becomes  turbid 


(Questions  and  answers  43 

and  acquires  a  yellowish  hue,  the  depth  of  which  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  bile  present. 

What  is  Fehling's  solution  and  for  what  is  it  employed? 

Fehling's  solution  is  an  aqueous  solution  of  cupric  sulphate 
mixed  with  potassio-sodic  tartrate  solution.  It  is  used  as  a  test  for 
sugar.    See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

State  the  specific  gravity  of  normal  urine. 

The  specific  gravity  of  horse  urine  ranges  from  1020  to  1050, 
the  average  being  about  1035. 

What  is  urea?     Give  its  chemical  formula. 

Urea  is  an  end-product  of  metabolism.  It  is  produced  by  the 
metabolism  of  the  albuminous  foods  ingested  and  the  albuminous 
substances  in  the  body.  It  is  a  white,  crystallizable  substance  and 
the  chief  nitrogenous  constituent  of  urine.    Formula,  CONgH^. 


ANATOMY* 

Osteology 

Give  the  properties  and  describe  the  development  of  the  growth  of  bone. 

Bone  is  composed  of  one-third  animal  matter  and  two-thirds 
mineral  matter,  principally  phosphates  and  carbonates  of  lime. 

Externally,  bones  are  covered  by  a  very  vascular  and  nervous, 
fibrous  membrane,  except  over  the  articular  surfaces  and  insertion 
of  tendons  and  ligaments.  Bone  proper  consists  of  lamellce,  trav- 
ersed by  "Haversian  canals."  These  canals  are  very  minute  and 
are  part  of  the  vascular  sj^stem.  The  medulla,  or  marrow,  is  a 
pulpy,  fatty  substance  which  fills  the  interior  and  the  areolte  of  the 
spongy  tissue  of  bones.  Blood-vessels  and  nerves  enter  by  way  of 
the  nutrient  canal.  Flat  bones  (found  in  the  head)  do  not  have  a 
medullary  cavity. 

Bones  are  developed  from  cartilages  and  fibrous  tissue.  The 
bones  of  the  face  and  cranium  are  the  only  ones  formed  from  the 
latter.  Cartilage,  undergoing  calcification  and  being  ramified  with 
blood-vessels  which  carry  the  osteoblasts  (bone-producing  cells), 
eventually  becomes  hard,  dense  bone.  Fibrous  tissue  is  transformed 
very  much  the  same  except  that  the  blood-vessels  and  other  directing 
lines  do  not  arrange  themselves  in  parallel  as  in  the  long  bones 
and,  as  a  result,  the  medullary  canal  is  absent,  it  being  replaced 
by  irregular,  communicating  cavities,  called  medullary  spaces. 

How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  skeleton  of  the  horse? 

The  number  is  subject  to  slight  variation  in  different  skeletons. 
Considering  the  sacrum  as  a  single  bone,  the  os  hyoides  as  one  and 
16  as  the  average  number  of  coccygeal  vertebrse,  there  are  191 
bones  in  the  horse 's  skeleton. 

Name  the  bones  of  the  cranium. 

Occipital,  parietal,  frontal,  sphenoid  and  ethmoid,  and  two  tem- 
poral— seven  in  all. 
Name  the  bones  of  the  head. 

Besides  those  of  the  cranium,  above  mentioned,  there  are  the 
following  pairs:  superior  maxillary,  premaxillary,  palatine,  ptery- 
goid, malar,  lachrymal,  nasal,  superior  and  inferior  turbinated,  and 
three  single  bones — vomer,  inferior  maxillary  and  hyoid. 

*  Unless  otherwise  stated  all  questions  relate  to  the  horse. 

44 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  45 

Describe  the  frontal  bone  of  the  ox. 

A  very  large,  flat  bone,  occupying  nearly  one-half  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  head  and  forming  the  front  part  of  the  roof  of  the 
cranium  and  part  of  the  face.  Quadrilateral  in  shape,  it  presents 
an  external  and  internal  face  and  four  borders.  The  external  face, 
slightly  convex,  is  extended  laterally  by  the  processes  which  form 
the  orbital  arches  and  rest  on  the  malar  bone.  Its  middle  region  is 
covered  by  the  skin  and  constitutes  the  base  of  the  forehead.  In  the 
upper  third,  the  supra-orbital  foramen  opens  into  a  vasculo- 
nervous  groove  which  ascends  toward  the  base  of  the  horns,  and 
descends  to  near  the  lower  border  of  the  bone.  The  internal  face 
is  concave  and  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by  a  transverse  ridge. 
The  superior,  the  more  extensive,  is  covered  with  digital  impres- 
sions and  belongs  to  the  cranial  cavity.  The  inferior  part,  articu- 
lating in  the  median  line  with  the  ethmoid,  shows,  between  the 
external  and  internal  plates  of  the  bone,  the  frontal  sinuses,  two 
spaces  which  form  part  of  the  roof  of  the  nasal  cavities.  Projecting 
from  each  side  of  the  superior  border  are  the  osseous  conical  cores 
which  support  the  horns  (absent  in  hornless  breeds).  These  projec- 
tions are  long  and  curved,  very  rugged,  perforated  by  foramina  and 
grooved  by  small  vascular  channels.  The  inferior  border  is  deeply 
notched  in  its  middle  to  receive  the  nasal  bones.  Laterally,  the 
bone  articulates  with  the  sphenoid,  parietal,  lachrymal  and  malar. 
The  orbital  foramen,  in  the  ox,  belongs  entirely  to  the  frontal  bone. 

Describe  the  superior  maxillary  bone. 

This  bone,  the  most  extensive  in  the  upper  jaw,  is  situated  on  the 
side  of  the  face;  it  is  bordered  above  by  the  frontal,  palatine, 
zygomatic  and  lachrymal  bones,  below  by  the  premaxillary,  in  front 
by  the  nasal,  behind  and  within  by  that  of  the  opposite  side.  It  is 
elongated  vertically  and  is  irregularly  triangular. 

The  external  face  shows  a  convex  surface  ending  below  in  the 
supermaxillary  spine ;  the  infra-orbital  foramen.  The  internal  face 
shows  a  flat  surface  which  forms  the  outer  wall  of  the  nasal  fossa; 
the  maxillary  sinus,  the  palatine  canal ;  a  ridge  for  the  attachment 
of  the  inferior  turbinated;  the  inferior  opening  of  the  lachrymal 
canal. 

The  external  border  is  very  thick  and  hollowed  into  six  large 
quadrilateral  cavities,  alveoli,  which  hold  the  molar  teeth.  Above 
the  last  alveolus  is  the  alveolar  tuberosity,  and,  below  the  first,  the 
interdental  space. 


46  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

The  superior  extremity  is  large  and  rounded  and  shows :  a  large 
cavity,  the  maxillary  sinus ;  the  infra-orbital  canal ;  and  the  palatine 
canal. 

The  inferior  extremity  presents  a  cavity  which  forms  the  alveolus 
of  the  tusk,  and  unites  with  a  similar  space  in  the  premaxillary  bone. 

Describe  the  inferior  maxilla. 

The  inferior  maxillary  is  a  very  large  bone,  situated  behind  the 
upper  jaw,  and  is  composed  of  two  symmetrical  branches,  joined  at 
their  lower  extremities  to  form  the  intermaxillary  space.  It  consists 
of  two  extremities,  an  inferior  and  superior,  tv/o  faces,  external  and 
internal,  and  two  borders,  a  superior  and  inferior. 

The  inferior  extremity  shows  the  body  of  the  bone  which  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  lateral  halves.  The  inferior  face 
is  smooth  and  convex,  and  shows  the  inferior  opening  of  the  maxillo- 
dental  canal — the  mental  foramen;  on  a  level  with  this  foramen, 
the  bone  markedly  contracts  to  form  the  neck.  The  superior  face 
is  smooth  and  concave ;  it  supports  the  free  extremity  of  the  tongue. 
The  circumference  is  convex  anteriorly  and  contains  six  sockets  for 
the  incisors,  and  behind  these — in  the  male  only — on  either  side  is 
an  additional  socket  for  the  tusks.  The  space  between  the  lateral 
incisors  and  tusks  is  called  the  bars,  or  inferior  interdental  space. 

The  superior  extremity  shows  the  condyloid  process  which 
articulates  with  the  glenoid  cavity  of  the  temporal  bone ;  the  neck, 
a  constriction  below  the  condyle;  the  coronoid  process,  in  front  of 
the  condyle  and  separated  from  it  by  the  sigmoid  notch,  is  flattened 
on  its  sides  and  receives  the  terminal  insertion  of  the  temporalis 
muscle. 

The  external  face  is  smooth  and  rounded  in  its  inferior  two- 
thirds  and  roughened  above  for  the  insertion  of  the  masseter 
muscle.  The  internal  face  presents  in  its  upper  one-third  the 
superior  orifice  of  the  inferior  maxillodental  canal  which  runs  down 
under  the  molar  teeth,  between  the  two  plates  of  the  bone,  to  the 
mental  foramen;  in  its  inferior  two-thirds  the  internal  face  is 
smooth.  Near  the  alveolar  border  and  running  parallel  therewith 
is  the  myloid  ridge.  At  the  junction  of  the  two  sides  is  a  roughened 
excavation — the  genial  surface. 

The  superior,  or  alveolar  border,  shows  a  straiglit  or  inferior 
portion  which  is  hollowed  by  six  alveoli  to  receive  tlie  inferior  molar 
teeth,  and  a  curved  or  superior  portion  for  muscular  insertion. 
The  inferior  border  shows  a  sharp,  straight  portion  and  a  more 
rounded  portion  above.  The  union  of  these  two  portions  forms  the 
angle  of  the  jaw. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  47 

[Name  the  bones  of  the  fore  limbs  of  the  horse  and  state  how  they 
differ  from  those  of  the  ox. 

In  the  horse:  Scapula,  humerus,  radius,  ulna,  scaphoid,  lunar, 
cuneiform,  pisiform,  trapezoid,  magnum,  unciform,  principal  meta- 
carpus, two  rudimentary  metacarpi,  suffraginis,  coronas,  pedis,  two 
sesamoids  and  one  naviculare. 

In  the  ox:  Scapula,  humerus,  radius,  ulna,  six  carpal  bones  (the 
OS  magnum  and  trapezoid  are  fused  together),  two  metacarpi  (one 
principal  and  one  rudimentary,  situated  outwardly),  four  digits — 
two  with  three  phalanges  and  three  sesamoids  (as  in  the  single  digit 
of  the  horse),  and  two  rudimentary  ones,  composed  of  two  small 
bones. 

Describe  the  scapula  and  name  the  bone  with  which  it  articulates. 

The  scapula  is  a  flat,  triangular-shaped  bone  which  is  applied 
against  the  anterior  and  outer  plane  of  the  thorax  in  an  oblique 
direction  downward  and  forward. 

It  has  two  faces,  external  and  internal ;  three  angles,  anterior 
or  cervical,  posterior  or  dorsal,  and  inferior  or  humeral,  and  three 
borders,  anterior,  posterior,  and  superior. 

The  external  surface  is  divided  by  a  marked  crest,  the  acromian 
spine,  which  runs  parallel  to  the  long  axis  of  the  bone,  into  two 
unequal  depressed  surfaces,  the  supra-  and  infraspinous  fossae. 
The  internal  face  is  concave,  forming  the  subscapular  fossa,  and  is 
roughened  for  muscular  insertion. 

The  anterior  or  cervical  angle  is  comparatively  thin,  the  posterior 
or  dorsal  is  thick.  The  inferior  or  humeral  is  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  bone  by  a  slight  constriction,  the  neck  of  the  scapula. 
It  presents  a  glenoid  cavity,  a  round,  shallow  depression,  which 
receives  the  head  of  the  humerus,  and  in  front,  a  coracoid  process, 
with  a  base  and  a  summit  which  curves  inwardly. 

The  superior  border  is  sharp  and  thin,  while  the  posterior  is 
thick  and  slightly  concave,  and  the  superior  is  irregular  and  is 
prolonged  by  a  thin  cartilage,  the  cartilage  of  prolongation. 

The  scapula  articulates  with  the  humerus. 

Describe  the  ulna. 

The  ulna  is  an  elongated,  triangular-shaped  bone  which  is  applied 
against  the  posterior  and  upper  three-fourths  of  the  radius  and 
strongly  united  with  the  same.  It  presents  for  study  a  middle  por- 
tion and  two  extremities. 

The  middle  portion  shows  an  external  smooth,  an  internal  eon- 
cave,  and  an  anterior  rough  surface  which  unites  with  the  radius. 
In  the  middle  third  of  the  anterior  surface  is  seen  the  ulnar  groove 


48  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

which  aids  in  forming  the  radio-ulnar  arch.  The  posterior  border  is 
concave  and  thick. 

On  the  superior  extremity  is  an  enormous  process,  the  olecranon, 
which  provides  place  for  the  attachment  of  the  extensors  of  the  fore- 
arm. It  shows  anteriorly  an  articular  surface,  the  sigmoid  cavity, 
which  terminates  above  in  a  beak.  The  inferior  extremity  terminates 
in  a  sharp  point,  and  sometimes  by  a  small  knob,  the  capitellum, 
which  sometimes  extends  to  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  radius. 

The  ulna  articulates  with  the  humerus  and  radius. 

Name  the  bones  of  the  carpus. 

Scaphoid,  lunar,  cuneiform,  pisiform  or  supercarpal,  trapezoid, 
magnum  and  unciform. 

Describe  the  pedal  bone. 

The  pedal  bone,  os  pedis,  third  phalanx  or  coffin  bone  as  it  is 
variously  known,  supports  the  hoof  and  anterior  limb.  It  is  a  short 
bone,  somewhat  pyramidal  in  shape,  and  is  divided  into  three  faces, 
three  borders,  and  two  lateral  angles. 

The  anterior  face  is  perforated  by  vascular  openings  and  shows 
laterally  the  preplantar  fissure,  a  horizontal  groove  between  the 
basilar  and  retrossal  processes ;  between  this  fissure  and  the  inferior 
border  of  the  bone  is  a  roughened  projecting  surface,  the  patilobe 
eminence.  The  superior  face  shows  two  articular  surfaces,  glenoid 
cavities,  which  are  divided  by  a  median  ridge.  The  inferior  (or 
solar)  face  is  somewhat  concave  and  divided  into  two  regions  by 
the  semilunar  crest;  just  behind  this  crest  and  on  either  side  the 
plantar  fissures  which  open  into  a  cavity  in  the  interior,  the  semi- 
lunar sinus,  may  be  seen. 

The  superior  border  is  convex  forward  and  shows  the  pyramidal 
eminence.  The  inferior  border  is  convex  and  perforated  by  from 
five  to  ten  large  foramina.  The  posterior  border  is  slightly  con- 
cave and  shows  a  diarthrodial  facet  for  the  navicular  bone. 

The  lateral  angles  are  two  projections  which  are  directed  back- 
ward. They  show  a  superior,  the  basilar,  and  an  inferior,  the  retros- 
sal, process. 

What  bones  enter  into  the  formation  of  the  foot  ? 

Seven  carpals,  three  metacarpals,  three  phalanges  and  three 
sesamoids,  before  mentioned. 

Describe  the  first  two  cervical  vertebrae. 

The  first  or  atlas  has  no  head  but  instead  two  deep  concave 
facets  which  articulate  with  the  occipital ;  posteriorly,  is  an  articular 
surface  for  the  odontoid  process  of  the  axis ;  the  transverse  processes 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  49 

are  large,  flattened  and  incline  forward  and  downward ;  there  is  no 
spinous  process,  but  a  roughened  surface  instead.  At  the  base  of 
each  transverse  process  are  two  foramina  which  traverse  it  from 
below  upward. 

The  second  or  axis  is  the  longest  of  all  the  cervical  vertebrae. 
It  terminates  anteriorly  in  a  conical  process,  the  odontoid,  which 
is  convex,  smooth  below  and  concave  above  to  articulate  with  the 
atlas.  The  spinous  process  is  very  prominent  and  elongated  antero- 
posteriorly.    The  transverse  processes  are  only  slightly  developed. 

Describe  the  common  characteristics  of  vertebras. 

Each  vertebra  has  a  body,  and  an  arch  enclosing  the  spinal  canal. 
The  superior  face  of  the  body  forms  the  lower  boundary  of  the 
spinal  canal.  The  anterior  extremity  of  the  body  is  convex  and  the 
posterior  is  concave.  The  arch  projects  upward  from  the  body  and 
is  composed  of  pedicles,  laminae,  transverse,  spinous  and  articular 
processes.  The  articular  processes,  four  in  number,  are  distributed 
two  anteriorly  and  two  posteriorly.  The  anterior  pair  look  upward, 
the  posterior  look  downward. 

What  are  true  vertebrae?     Give  the  number  in  the  horse,  ox  and  dog. 

True  vertebrge  are  those  constituting  the  cervical,  dorsal  and  lum- 
bar regions  of  the  spinal  column.  There  are  30  in  the  horse,  26  in 
the  ox,  and  27  in  the  dog. 

Describe  the  sternum  of  the  horse  and  compare  it  with  the  sternum  of 
the  ox  and  dog. 

The  sternum  is  the  osteocartilaginous  body  which  forms  the  in- 
ferior boundary  of  the  thoracic  cavity.  It  shows  on  either  side 
articulations  for  the  first  eight  ribs;  anteriorly,  it  shows  a  carti- 
laginous mass,  flattened  on  each  side  and  curved  upward,  the  cervical 
prolongation  or  presternum;  posteriorly  it  is  flattened  above  and 
below  to  form  the  xiphoid  or  ensiform  cartilage.  It  is  flattened, 
laterally,  in  its  anterior  two-thirds,  and  from  above  downward  in  its 
posterior  one-third. 

The  sternum  never  undergoes  complete  ossification.  It  is  de- 
veloped, in  the  horse,  from  six  single  nuclei  which  never  coalesce 
to  form  a  single  piece. 

In  the  ox,  the  sternum  is  made  up  of  seven  parts;  they  are 
much  more  compact  than  those  in  the  horse,  and  are  united  to  each 
other,  with  the  exception  of  the  first.  There  is  no  cervical  pro- 
longation and  the  xiphoid  cartilage  is  feebly  developed. 

In  the  sternum  of  the  dog,  eight  component  parts  are  noted. 
They  are  hollowed  in  their  middle  part  and  thick  at  their  ends. 
They  are  never  ossified  to  each  other. 
4 


50  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  sacrum. 

The  sacrum  is  formed  by  the  consolidation  of  five  vertebrae  which 
are  closely  fused.  It  articulates,  anteriorly,  with  the  last  lumbar 
vertebra,  posteriorly,  with  the  first  coccygeal  bone,  and,  laterally, 
with  the  OS  innominata. 

The  bone  is  triangular  in  shape  with  a  base  anteriorly,  articulat- 
ing with  the  last  lumbar  vertebra  through  its  body,  articular  and 
transverse  processes;  posteriorly,  the  apex  articulates  with  the 
coccyx;  and  laterally,  the  first  segment  shows  a  sort  of  transverse 
process  which  has  an  auricular  facet  to  furnish  articulation  with 
the  OS  innominata.  The  inferior  surface  is  smooth  and  shows  four 
intervertebral  foramina,  and  the  superior  surface  shows  in  its  mid- 
dle the  spinous  processes  which  together  constitute  the  sacral  spine. 
On  each  side  of  the  sacral  spine  is  a  groove  which  is  pierced  between 
each  segment  by  the  supersacral  foramina. 

Name  the  bones  of  the  pelvis. 

The  OS  innominatum,  made  up  of  the  ilium,  pubis  and  ischium, 
and  the  sacrum. 

Describe  the  cotyloid  cavity. 

The  cotyloid  cavity  is  a  deep  excavation  which  is  formed  in  the 
middle  of  the  os  innominata  at  the  junction  of  the  ilium,  pubis  and 
ischium.  It  is  circumscribed  by  a  narrow  rim  which  is  notched  on 
the  inner  side  to  communicate  with  the  subpubic  notch.  The  deeper 
portion  is  roughened  for  ligamentous  insertion.  The  cavity  receives 
the  articulating  head  of  the  femur. 

Describe  the  pelvis.  State  the  difference  between  the  pelvis  of  the 
horse  and  that  of  the  ox. 

The  pelvis  is  a  bony  cavity  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  body, 
which  prolongs  the  abdominal  cavity  between  the  sacrum  and  the 
coccygeal  vertebrae.  It  is  formed  above  by  the  sacrum,  laterally 
by  the  ilia,  but  mostly  by  the  sacrosciatic  ligament,  and  below  by 
the  ischia  and  pubes.  The  inlet  is  bounded  by  the  sacrum,  pubes 
and  ilia  and  has  four  diameters,  vertical,  horizontal  and  two 
oblique;  the  outlet,  through  which  pass  the  rectum  and  genital 
organs,  is  bounded  by  the  sacrum,  ischia  and  sacrosciatic  ligament, 
and  has  two  diameters,  vertical  and  horizontal. 

In  the  ox,  the  os  innominatum  is  nearly  horizontal,  the  transverse 
diameter  is  relatively  less  extensive,  and  the  ilium  is  more  oblique. 

Name  the  bones  of  the  hind  limb. 

The  OS  innominatum  or  coxa  (composed  of  ilium,  pubis  and 
ischium),  femur,  tibia,  fibula,  the  tarsus  (composed  of  six  bones, 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  51 

viz.,  astragalus,  calcaneum,  cuneiform  maguuin,  cuneiform  medium, 
cuneiform  parvum,  and  cuboid) ,  one  principal  and  two  rudimentary- 
metatarsi,  two  sesamoids,  suffraginis,  corona?,  pedis,  and  naviculare. 

Give  the  number  of  ribs,  sternal  and  asternal,  in  the  horse,  the  ox  and 
the  dog  respectively. 
Sternal :  horse,  8  ;  ox,  8  ;  dog,  9. 
Asternal :  horse,  10 ;  ox,  5  ;  dog,  4. 

Define  trochanter,  condyle,  trochlea,  foramen,  sinus,  tuberosity,  spinous 
process,  glenoid  cavity. 

Trochanter  is  a  large,  bony  eminence  on  the  superior  extremity  of 
the  femur,  below  the  neck. 

A  condyle  is  an  articular  eminence  on  the  extremity  of  a  bone 
which  represents  an  ovoid  segment  cut  parallel  to  its  larger  axis 
{e.g.,  the  condyles  of  the  femur). 

A  trochlea  is  a  pulley-like  articular  surface  on  the  extremities 
of  bones,  as  seen  on  the  os  astragalus  or  tibial-tarsal  bone. 

A  foramen  is  an  opening  into  or  surrounded  by  bone,  through 
which  blood-vessels  and  nerves  pass. 

A  sinus  is  a  recess,  cavity  or  hollow  space  surrounded  by  bone, 
found  chiefly  within  the  cranium, 

A  tuberosity  is  a  large,  round,  and  slightly  detached  non- 
articular  eminence  on  a  bone  (the  great  tuberosity  of  the 
humerus). 

A  spinous  process  is  a  bony  projection  on  the  dorsal  face  of  a 
vertebra. 

A  glenoid  cavity  is  an  oval,  shallow,  diarthrodial  cavity  in  a  bone 
(the  glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula). 

Arthrology 

Name  the  different  classes  of  articulations  and  give  an  example  of  each 
class. 
Synarthroses,  e.g.,  the  occipitotemporal  articulation. 
Amphiarthroses,  e.g.,  the  intervertebral  articulations. 
Diarthroses,  e.g.,  the  coxofemoral  articulation. 

Define  (a)  synarthrosis,  (b)  amphiarthrosis,  (c)  diarthrosis. 

Symarthrosis  is  an  immovable  articulation  as  seen  in  the  bones 
of  the  skull. 

Amphiarthrosis  is  a  joint  with  limited  movement,  being  inter- 
mediate between  a  synarthrosis  and  a  diarthrosis ;  e.g.,  the  sacro-iliac 
joint. 

Diarthrosis  is  a  freely  movable  joint,  as  the  atlo-axoid. 


52  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

What  structures  may  enter  into  the  construction  of  the  following 
different  kinds  of  joints:  (a)  synarthrodial,  (b)  amphi- 
arthrodial,  and  (c)  diarthrodial  ? 

(a)  Bone,  fibrous  tissue  and  periosteum. 

(b)  Bone,  fibrocartilage,  ligaments. 

(c)  Bone,  cartilage,  ligaments,  synovial  capsule  and  synovia. 

Describe  the  atlo-axoid  articulation. 

This  is  an  example  of  a  diarthrodial  joint.  It  is  made  up  of  the 
odontoid  and  articular  processes  of  the  axis  and  the  corresponding 
depressions  on  the  atlas. 

Ligaments :  Odontoid,  from  the  odontoid  to  the  inferior  arch  of 
the  atlas;  the  superior  atlo-axoid,  between  the  spines;  the  inferior 
atlo-axoid  below  the  bodies;  the  capsular  ligaments  (two)  between 
the  articular  processes ;  synovial  membrane. 

Action:  Lateral  rotation. 

Describe  the  articulating  surfaces  of  the  axis. 

Anteriorly,  is  a  conical  process,  termed  the  odontoid,  which  is 
flattened  above  and  below,  convex  and  smooth  on  its  inferior  surface 
to  fit  the  corresponding  surface  on  the  atlas.  The  anterior  articu- 
lating processes  (prezygopophyses)  are  carried  to  the  base  and  to 
each  side  of  the  odontoid  in  the  shape  of  two  undulating  facets  and 
are  confounded  with  the  gliding  surface  of  the  latter.  Posteriorly, 
is  a  wide  and  deep  cavity  to  receive  the  head  of  the  succeeding 
vertebra;  above  and  on  each  side  of  this  cavity  are  the  posterior 
articulating  processes  (post-zygopophyses)  inclined  downward. 

Describe  the  joints  that,  back  of  the  dentata,  connect  the  vertebrae. 

Ligaments:  1.  The  common  superior  vertebral  ligament  which 
lies  above  the  bodies  of  the  vertebree  and  is  attached  to  them  from 
the  axis  to  the  sacrum. 

2.  The  common  inferior  vertebral  ligament  which  lies  below  the 
bodies  and  is  attached  to  them  from  the  sixth  or  eighth  dorsal  to 
the  sacrum. 

3.  An  interarticular  fibrocartilage  which  is  found  between  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebrce. 

4.  A  capsular  ligament,  between  the  articular  processes. 

5.  An  intertransverse,  between  the  transverse  processes. 

6.  An  interlamellar,  between  the  lamintc. 

7.  An  interspinous,  between  the  spinous  processes. 

8.  A  supraspinous,  between  the  summits  of  the  spinous  processes. 
The  ligamentum  nucha?  extends  from  the  first  dorsal  to  the 

occiput.    In  the  sacral  and  coccygeal  regions  the  articulations  are 
more  or  less  fused  and  rudimentary. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  53 

The  fibrocartilage  in  the  lumbosacral  articulation  is  very  thick 
and  the  transverse  processes  of  the  last  lumbar  articulates  with  the 
external  angles  of  the  sacrum.  The  fifth  and  sixth  lumbar  also 
articulate  between  their  transverse  processes. 

The  movements  of  the  spinal  column  are  those  of  flexion,  exten- 
sion and  lateral.  These  movements  are  quite  free  in  the  cervical 
region  but  restricted  elsewhere. 

Describe  the  ligamentum  nuchas,  particularly  as  to  its  origin,  distribu- 
tion and  function. 
The  ligamentum  nuchse  is  composed  of  two  portions,  viz.,  a 
funicular  portion,  from  the  first  dorsal  spinous  process  to  the  sum- 
mit of  the  head,  and  a  lamellar  portion  which  extends  between  the 
spinous  processes  of  the  second  dorsal  and  the  last  six  cervical 
vertebra. 

Function :  It  acts  as  a  stay  and  support  to  the  head  and  main- 
tains the  head  and  neck  in  a  natural  position  during  repose. 

What  forms  and  kinds  of  costochondral  and  costosternal  joints  in  the 

horse  and  the  ox  hinder  or  favor  free  breathing  in  the 

recumbent  position? 

The  costochondral  in  the  horse  are  synarthrodial  and  hinder,  but 

in  the  ox  they  are  true  gingymoid  diarthroses  and  hence  favor  free 

breathing.     The  costosternal  in  both  the  horse   and  the   ox  are 

diarthrodial,  but  have  a  gliding  movement  only,  hence  they  hinder 

free  breathing  in  the  recumbent  position. 

Describe  the  shoulder- joint. 

The  scapulohumeral  articulation  is  an  enarthrodial,  or  ball-and- 
socket  joint,  which  is  formed  by  the  head  of  the  humerus  and  the 
glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula. 

Ligaments :  A  rudimentary  glenoid  ligament  which  deepens  the 
cavity;  a  capsular  ligament,  extending  from  the  margins  of  the 
cavity  to  the  neck  of  the  humerus;  two  supporting  fasciculi  from 
the  coracoid  process  to  the  head  of  the  humerus. 

The  muscles  in  relation  to  the  joint  are : 

1.  In  front,  coracoradial. 

2.  Behind,  large  extensor  of  the  forearm  and  teres  minor. 

3.  Outside,  short  abductor  of  the  arm  and  postea  spinatus. 

4.  Inside,  subscapularis. 

Action:  Abduction,  adduction,  flexion,  extension,  rotation  and 
circumduction. 

Name  and  describe  the  ligaments  of  the  elbow- joint. 

An  anterior,  from  the  humerus  above  the  articular  surface  to 
the  anterior  part  of  the  radius. 


54  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

An  external  lateral,  from  the  cavity  outside  of  the  humerus  to 
the  external  portion  of  the  radius. 

An  internal  lateral,  from  the  inner  tuberosity  of  the  inferior 
extremity  of  the  humerus  to  the  radial  tuberosity  and  to  interos- 
seous fibres. 

Describe  the  radiocarpal  articulation. 

The  radiocarpal  articulation  is  an  imperfect  ginglymoid  which 
is  made  up  of  the  lower  articular  surface  of  the  radius  and  the  four 
upper  carpal  bones. 

Three  ligaments :  an  internal  from  the  radius  to  the  fourth  bone, 
a  superficial  external  from  the  radius  to  the  supercarpal  bone,  and 
a  deep  external  from  the  radius  to  the  second  bone  and  interosseous 
ligament. 

iName  the  structures  composing  the  carpus. 

1.  The  articulations  uniting  the  carpal  bones  of  the  first  row  to 
each  other. 

2.  The  analogous  articulations  of  the  second  row. 

3.  The  radiocarpal  articulation. 

4.  The  articulation  of  the  two  rows  with  each  other. 

5.  The  carpometacarpal  articulation. 

Describe  the  ligaments  of  the  knee-joint. 

Besides  those  mentioned  above  in  describing  the  radiocarpal  joint 
are  three  anterior  and  three  interosseous  in  front  or  and  between 
the  first  row  of  carpal  bones;  two  anterior  and  two  interosseous  in 
front  of  and  between  the  second  row ;  an  external  posterior,  from  the 
first  bone  of  the  upper  to  the  second  bone  of  the  lower  row;  an 
internal  posterior,  from  the  internal  bone  of  the  upper  row  to  the 
second  and  third  of  the  lower  row ;  an  external,  from  the  supercarpal 
bone  to  the  first  bone  of  the  second  row  and  head  of  the  external 
metacarpal. 

Between  the  lower  row  and  the  metacarpal  bones  are  two  an- 
terior, one  between  the  second  bone  and  the  principal  metacarpal, 
the  other  from  the  first  to  the  external  metacarpal ;  two  interosseous 
from  the  articulation  between  the  metacarpi  to  the  interosseous 
ligaments  of  the  second  row. 

Common  carpal  ligaments  are : 

1.  Anterior,  from  tlie  radius  to  the  principal  metacarpus. 

2.  Posterior,  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  radial  surface  to  the 
carpus  and  the  principal  metacarpus. 

3.  External  lateral,  from  the  outer  side  of  the  radius  to  the 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  55 

first  bones  of  the  upper  and  lower  rows  and  the  outer  metacarpal 
bone. 

4.  Internal  lateral,  from  the  inner  side  of  the  radius  to  the  prin- 
cipal and  inner  metacarpi,  as  well  as  to  the  capsular  ligament. 

Name  the  bones  and  ligaments  of  the  fetlock  joint. 

Bones :  Metacarpus,  first  phalanx,  and  two  sesamoids. 

Ligaments:  lutersesamoid,  between  the  two  sesamoids;  lateral 
sesamoid,  between  the  sides  of  the  sesamoid  and  the  upper  extremity 
of  the  first  phalanx;  inferior  sesamoid,  of  three  fasciculi  from  the 
posterior  surface  of  the  first  phalanx  to  the  sesamoid  bones ;  external 
and  internal  lateral,  from  the  metacarpus  to  the  sides  of  the 
first  phalanx;  an  anterior,  between  the  anterior  surfaces  of  both 
bones;  a  posterior,  or  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock,  from  the 
first  and  second  bone  of  the  inferior  carpal  row  and  posterior  face 
of  the  principal  metacarpus  to  the  top  of  the  sesamoids,  where  it 
divides  into  two  fasciculi  which  pass  forward  and  are  inserted  into 
the  anterior  extensor  of  the  phalanges. 

What  is  the  function  of  the  suspensory  ligament? 

It  acts  as  a  mainstay  or  brace  to  the  foot,  and  assists  in  preventing 
jar  from  concussion  when  the  fore  limbs  are  brought  to  the  ground 
in  locomotion. 

Describe  the  first  interphalangeal  articulation. 

This  is  an  imperfect  ginglymus,  between  the  os  suffraginis  and 
OS  coronge.  Ligaments:  two  lateral  ligaments  between  the  sides  of 
the  bones;  one  posterior  ligament,  or  glenoidal  fibrocartilage 
attached  to  the  first  and  second  phalanges  by  six  bands,  increases 
the  articular  surface  below  and  forms  a  sheath  for  the  passage  of 
the  perforans  tendon. 

Movements :  Flexion,  extension  and  some  lateral  motion. 

Describe  and  discuss  the  functions  of  the  lateral  cartilages. 

The  lateral  cartilages,  two  in  number,  are  composed  of  fibrous 
and  cartilaginous  tissue,  and  are  the  shape  of  an  oblique  parallelo- 
gram. They  are  prolonged  behind  the  third  phalanx  and  are 
attached  in  front  to  the  anterior  lateral  ligament,  behind,  to  the 
basilar  and  retrossal  processes  and  plantar  cushion.  They  are  thin 
above  with  a  notch  posteriorly  for  vessels;  thick  below,  concave 
internally,  with  vascular  foramina,  and  convex  externally,  with 
foramina  for  vessels. 

In  association  with  the  plantar  cushion  they  act  as  cushions  in 
preventing  jar  and  allowing  for  expansion  when  the  foot  is  brought 
in  contact  with  the  ground. 


56  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  hip-joint. 

The  coxofemoral  articulation  is  an  enarthrodial,  or  ball-and- 
socket,  joint  between  the  cotyloid  cavity  of  the  os  innominata  and 
the  head  of  the  femur. 

Ligaments:  Capsular,  extending  from  the  margins  of  the  coty- 
loid cavity  to  the  neck  of  the  femur;  a  transverse,  converting  the 
notch  into  a  foramen ;  a  cotyloid  which  deepens  the  cavity ;  a  coxo- 
femoral (ligamentum  teres),  from  the  bottom  of  the  cotyloid  cavity 
to  the  depression  in  the  head  of  the  femur ;  a  pubiof emoral,  from  the 
inferior  face  of  the  pelvis  to  the  cotyloid  cavity;  a  synovial  mem- 
brane which  is  very  extensive. 

Muscles  in  relation  to  the  joint  are,  anteriorly,  the  gracilis  and 
rectus ;  posteriorly,  the  gemelli,  internal  obturator  and  pyramidalis ; 
inf eriorly,  the  external  obturator ;  and  superiorly,  the  small  gluteus. 

State  the  difference  between  the  hip-joint  of  the  horse  and  that  of 
the  ox. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

The  pubiofemoral  ligament  is  absent  in  the  ox,  which  permits  of 
greater  freedom  to  movements  of  abduction. 

Describe  the  femorotibial  articulation. 

A  diarthrodial  type  of  joint,  between  the  femur,  tibia  and 
patella. 

Ligaments:  An  anterior,  made  of  three  strong  fasciculi  from 
the  patella  to  the  anterior  surface  of  the  tibia;  the  antepatellar 
aponeurosis,  which  is  an  expansion  of  the  fascia  lata,  binds  the 
patella  to  the  femur  by  two  lateral  fasciculi;  an  external  lateral, 
from  the  external  condyle  to  the  head  of  the  fibula ;  an  internal  lat- 
eral, from  the  inner  condyle  to  the  inner  tibial  tuberosity;  a  pos- 
terior, from  the  posterior  face  of  the  femur  to  the  tibia ;  two  crucial, 
or  interosseous,  from  the  intercondyloid  notch  to  the  tibial  spine, 
crossing  in  the  centre,  forming  an  X ;  two  interarticular  fibrocarti- 
lages  (menisci),  attached  to  the  tibial  spine  and  by  fasciculi  to  the 
femur  and  tibia;  a  synovial  membrane  in  two  portions,  one  under 
the  patella  and  the  other  under  the  lateral  ligaments. 

Action:  Flexion,  extension  and  rotation. 

Name  the  various  articulations  of  the  tarsal  joint. 

Tibiotarsal,  calcaneo-astragaloid,  second  row  of  tarsus  with  each 
other,  two  rows  of  tarsus  with  each  other,  and  tarsometatarsal. 

Describe  the  calcaneocuboid  ligament. 

A  strong  fibrous  brace  which  unites  the  posterior  border  of  the 
calcis  to  the  cuboides  and  to  the  head  of  the  external  rudimentary 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  57 

metatarsal  bone.  It  blends,  outwardly,  with  the  external  and  super- 
ficial, tibiotarsal  ligament,  and  inwardly,  with  the  posterior  tarso- 
metatarsal band.    Strains  of  this  ligament  give  rise  to  "curb." 

Myology 
Describe  aponeuroses. 

Aponeuroses  are  flattened  bands  of  white  fibrous  tissue  which 
envelop,  in  common,  all  the  muscles  of  one  or  several  adjoining  re- 
gions, and  by  one  extremity  are  attached  to  the  bones.  They  main- 
tain the  muscles  in  their  position  and  sustain  them  during  their 
contraction. 

Describe  the  masseter  muscle. 

A  short,  wide  and  very  thick  muscle,  irregularly  quadrilateral, 
applied  against  the  external  face  of  the  mandible.  Origin:  the 
zygomatic  process  of  the  temporal  bone.  Insertion :  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  ramus  of  the  jaw.  Action :  elevator  of  the  jaw.  Nerve : 
inferior  maxillary  branch  of  the  fifth. 

Name  the  muscles  that  close  the  jaw  and  give  the  attachments  of  each. 

Llasseter,  see  above.  Temporal,  from  the  temporal  fossa,  the 
temporal  fascia  and  the  outer  border  of  the  orbit  to  the  coronoid 
process  and  ramus  of  the  inferior  maxilla ;  pterygoid  internus,  from 
the  palatine  crest  and  subsplienoidal  process  to  the  hollow  on  the 
inner  face  of  the  inferior  maxilla;  pterygoid  externus,  from  the 
inferior  face  of  the  sphenoid  and  the  pterygoid  process  to  the  neck 
of  the  condyle  of  the  lower  maxilla. 

Name  the  muscles  of  the  globe  of  the  eye. 

Retractor  oculi;  superior,  inferior,  external  and  internal  recti; 
superior  oblique  and  inferior  oblique. 

Describe  the  mastoidohumeralis  muscle. 

It  extends  from  the  summit  of  the  head  to  the  inferior  part  of  the 
arm.  It  consists  of  two  portions,  viz.,  an  anterior  portion  which 
originates  on  the  mastoid  process  and  crest,  and  is  inserted  in  the 
furrow  of  torsion  of  the  humerus,  below  the  deltoid  imprint;  a 
posterior  portion  which  originates  on  the  transverse  processes  of  the 
first  four  cervical  vertebrae  and  is  inserted  with  the  anterior  portion. 
It  carries  the  limb  forward  or  inclines  the  head  to  the  side. 

Name  the  muscle  separating  the  carotid  artery  from  the  jugular  vein. 
What  is  the  function  of  this  muscle? 
The  subscapulohyoideus.     It  is  a  depressor  of  the  hyoid  bone 
and  its  appendages. 


58  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Name  the  muscles  that  aid  in  flexing  the  shoulder- joint. 

Teres  externus  (long  abductor  of  the  arm)  and  teres  internus 
(adductor  of  the  arm). 

Name  the  muscles  of  the  brachial  region. 

Anterior  region:   the  flexor  brachii  and  humeralis  obliquus. 
Posterior  brachial  region :  the  triceps,  viz.,  caput  magnum,  caput 
medium  and  caput  parvum,  and  the  anconeus. 

Name  the  muscles  of  the  forearm. 

Four  anteriorly,  viz.,  anterior  extensor  of  the  metacarpus, 
oblique  extensor  of  the  metacarpus,  extensor  pedis  and  .extensor  suf - 
fraginis. 

Five  posteriorly,  viz.,  external  flexor  of  the  metacarpus,  oblique 
flexor  of  the  metacarpus,  flexor  pedis  perforatus,  flexor  pedis  per- 
forans  and  internal  flexor  of  the  metacarpus. 

Describe  the  flexor  pedis  perforans. 

Situated  immediately  behind  the  radius  and  is  composed  of  three 
portions  which  unite  at  the  carpus  to  continue  to  the  inferior 
extremity  of  the  digit  by  a  long  and  powerful  tendon. 

Origin:  The  summit  of  the  epitroclilea,  summit  and  posterior 
border  of  the  olecranon,  and  posterior  surface  of  the  radius,  by 
the  three  portions,  respectively.  Above  the  carpus,  these  three 
unite  and  pass  through  the  carpal  sheath  and  between  the  two 
terminal  branches  of  the  perforatus  tendon  to  its  insertion,  the 
semilunar  crest  of  the  os  pedis. 

Name  all  the  muscles  that  vi^ould  be  severed  in  amputating  the  fore  limb 
just  above  the  knee. 
All  those  of  the  forearm  mentioned  above. 

Name  the  muscles  that  flex  the  carpus.    Give  their  attachments. 

1.  External  flexor  of  the  metacarpus,  from  the  external  condyle 
of  the  humerus  to  the  supercarpal  and  external  metacarpal  bones. 

2.  Oblique  flexor  of  the  metacarpus  from  the  base  of  the  epi- 
trochlea  and  olecranon  to  the  supercarpal. 

3.  Internal  flexor  of  the  metacarpus  from  the  base  of  the  epi- 
trochlea  to  the  head  of  the  internal  metacarpal  bone. 

4.  Flexor  pedis  perforatus  arises  on  the  summit  of  the  epi- 
troclilea and  extends  to  the  second  phalanx ;  in  contracting  shortly, 
it  flexes  the  carpus. 

5.  Flexor  pedis  perforans,  described  above. 

Give  the  origin,  insertion  and  action  of  the  flexor  brachii. 
Origin :  Coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  59 

Insertion:  Superior  and  internal  tuberosity  of  the  radius,  the 
capsular  and  internal  lateral  ligament. 
Action :  Flexes  the  forearm. 

Give  the  origin,  insertion  and  action  of  the  flexor  metacarpi  medius. 

This  is  the  same  as  the  oblique  flexor  of  the  metacarpus  given 
above. 

Name  the  muscles  of  the  gluteal  region,  or  croup. 
Three :  superficial,  middle  and  deep  glutei. 

Name  the  muscles  attached  to  the  upper  third  of  the  femur. 

Great  psoas,  iliopsoas,  superficial,  middle  and  deep  glutei,  ten- 
sor fascia  lata,  vastus  externus,  vastus  internus,  pectineus,  small 
adductor  of  the  thigh,  great  adductor  of  the  thigh,  quadratus  fem- 
oris,  obturator  externus,  internal  obturator,  and  gemelli. 

Give  the  origin  and  the  insertion  of  the  vastus  externus  muscle. 

Origin :  Outer  and  anterior  surfaces  of  the  superior  extremity  of 
the  femur. 

Insertion :  Superior  face  and  external  side  of  the  patella. 

Give  the  origin,  insertion  and  action  of  the  popliteus. 

Origin :  Outside  the  external  condyle  of  the  femur. 
Insertion:  Into  the  triangular  surface  on  the  posterior  surface 
of  the  tibia  in  its  superior  parts. 

Action :  Flexes  the  tibia  and  rotates  it  outward. 

Describe  the  origin,  insertion  and  action  of  the  gastrocnemius. 

Origin :  The  external  head  from  above  and  behind  the  external 
condyle  of  the  femur ;  the  internal  head  from  the  internal  condyle. 

Insertion :  Into  the  posterior  part  of  the  summit  of  the  oo  calcis 
after  passing  into  a  bursa. 

Action :  Extends  the  foot  on  the  tibia. 

Give  the  origin,  insertion  and  action  of  the  sartorius. 

Origin:  The  iliac  aponeurosis  near  the  tendon  of  the  psoas 
parvus. 

Insertion :  The  internal  patellar  ligament. 
Action :  Adducts  the  leg  and  flexes  the  femur. 

Name  and  give  the  attachments  of  the  muscles  that  flex  the  tarsus. 

1.  Flexor  metatarsi :  the  tendinous  portion  orginates  from  the 
front  of  the  femur  between  the  trochlea  and  the  external  condyle 
and  is  inserted  in  front  of  the  superior  extremity  of  the  principal 
metatarsus  and  to  the  cuboid  bone ;  the  muscular  portion  originates 
from  the  tibia  on  the  sides  of  the  groove  through  which  the  tendon 


60  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

passes,  and  is  inserted  in  front  of  the  superior  extremity  of  the 
principal  metatarsus  and  the  second  cuneiform  bone. 

2.  Anterior  extensor  of  the  phalanges:  originates  in  the  digital 
fossa  above  the  external  condyle  of  the  femur ;  and  is  inserted  in  the 
capsular  ligament  of  the  metatarsophalangeal  articulation,  the  an- 
terior surfaces  of  the  first  two  phalanges,  and  the  pyramidal  emi- 
nence of  the  OS  pedis. 

3.  Lateral  extensor  of  the  phalanges:  originates  along  the  ex- 
ternal femorotibial  ligament  and  the  whole  extent  of  the  fibula,  and 
terminates  in  the  tendon  of  the  anterior  extensor. 

Give  the  origin,  course,  relations  and  termination  of  the  lateral  ex- 
tensor of  the  phalanges  (peroneus). 

Origin  and  termination  given  above. 

The  muscular  portion  extends  in  the  direction  of  the  tibia  on  the 
external  side  from  the  superior  to  its  inferior  extremity.  The 
tendinous  portion,  succeeding  the  muscular  portion,  passes  to  the 
external  side  of  the  tarsus  through  the  tibial  sheath  and  passes  for- 
ward to  join  the  tendon  of  the  anterior  extensor,  near  the  middle  of 
the  metatarsal  region. 

The  muscular  body  is  enveloped  in  a  special  containing  apo- 
neurosis which  separates  it  in  front  from  the  anterior  extensor  and 
behind  from  the  perf orans.  The  tendon  covers  the  tibia  and  margins 
the  external  and  superficial  ligament  of  the  tibiotarsal  articulation. 

Name  the  muscles  of  the  tail. 

Six  sacrococcygeal  muscles,  viz.,  two  superior,  two  inferior  and 
two  lateral ;  two  ischiococcygeal  muscles. 

Describe  the  panniculus  carnosus  muscle. 

An  immense  wide  muscle  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  skin,  cover- 
ing the  sides  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen.  It  is  irregularly  triangular, 
thin  at  its  borders  and  thicker  in  its  middle. 

Origin :  From  the  flank  to  the  posterior  border  of  the  ulnar  mass 
of  muscles  and  pectoralis  major. 

Insertion:  One  layer  to  the  anterior  limb  and  one  to  the  small 
trochanter;  aponeurotic  fibres  attach  it  to  the  internal  surface  of 
the  skin  and  fascia  of  the  superficial  muscles. 

Action:  In  contracting,  the  whole  cutaneous  integument  is 
shaken,  thus  preventing  insects  from  alighting. 

Give  the  origin,  insertion  and  action  of  the  longissimus  dorsi. 

Origin :  The  lumbar  border,  external  angle  and  internal  surface 
of  the  ilium,  and  the  spinous  processes  of  all  the  lumbar,  dorsal  and 
last  four  cervical  vertebrae. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  61 

Insertion :  The  transverse  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  and 
the  outer  surfaces  of  the  fifteen  or  sixteen  last  ribs. 

Action :  Extends  the  vertebral  column  and  pulls  the  ribs  forward 
in  expiration. 

Give  the  origin,  insertion  and  action  of  the  longus  colli  muscle. 

Origin:  Posterior  portion  arises  from  the  inferior  face  of  the 
bodies  of  the  first  six  dorsal  vertebra.  The  middle  portion,  from 
the  transverse  processes  of  the  last  six  cervical  vertebra?.  The  an- 
terior portion,  from  the  anterior  three  or  four  fasciculi  of  the 
middle  portion. 

Insertion:  The  posterior  portion  is  inserted  on  the  tubercle  of 
the  sixth  cervical  vertebra.  The  middle  portion,  on  the  inferior 
ridge  of  the  bodies  of  the  first  six  cervical  vertebrae.  The  anterior 
portion,  on  the  inferior  tubercle  of  the  atlas. 

Action:  Flexes  the  neck. 

Give  the  origin,  insertion  and  action  of  the  serratus  magnus. 
Origin :  The  external  surface  of  the  first  eight  ribs. 
Insertion :  The  anterior  and  posterior  triangular  surfaces  of  the 
scapula  and  the  subscapularis. 

Action :  Supports  the  body  as  a  girdle,  or  depresses  the  scapula. 

Describe  the  diaphragm.  What  important  structures  pass  through  the 
diaphragm  ? 

The  diaphragm  is  the  muscular  partition  between  the  thoracic 
and  abdominal  cavities. 

Originates  by  right  and  left  pillars  from  the  lumbar  vertebraB 
and  is  confounded  with  the  inferior  common  ligament  of  the  spine ; 
also  from  the  xiphoid  appendage  of  the  sternum,  and  the  anterior 
extremities  of  the  last  twelve  ribs. 

Insertion:  Phrenic  centre,  dividing  into  right  and  left  leaflets. 

The  diaphragm  is  related  anteriorly  with  the  pleura  and  lungs ; 
posteriorly,  with  the  peritoneum,  stomach,  liver,  colon  and  spleen. 

The  aorta,  thoracic  duct,  vena  cava  and  oesophagus  pass  through 
the  diaphragm. 

How  does  the  diaphragm  of  the  ox  difiFer  from  that  of  the  horse?     Of 
what  surgical  importance  is  this  difference? 
The  attachments  of  the  muscular  portion  are  much  farther  dis- 
tant from  the  cartilaginous  circle  than  in  the  horse. 

This  arrangement  permits  puncture  of  the  rumen  through  the 
last  intercostal  space,  whereas  a  puncture  at  this  point  in  the  horse 
would  enter  the  thoracic  cavity. 


62  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Name  the  muscles  of  respiration. 

Inspiratory :  External  and  internal  intercostals,  levatores  costa- 
rum,  serratus  anticus,  serratus  magnus,  latissiiuus  dorsi,  diaphragm. 

Expiratory:  External  and  internal  intercostals,  serratus  posti- 
cus, triangularis  sterni,  great  and  small  oblique  muscles  of  tlie 
abdomen,  longissimus  dorsi,  and  the  retractor  of  the  last  rib. 

Describe  the  inguinal  canal,  stating  the  structures  which  it  contains, 

A  canal,  two  to  two  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  on  each  side 
and  in  front  of  the  pubic  bone,  running  downward,  backward  and 
inward,  comprised  between  Poupart  's  ligament  of  the  great  oblique 
muscle,  posteriorly,  and  the  small  oblique  muscle  anteriorly.  Its 
inferior  orifice  (external  or  cutaneous  orifice,  inguinal  or  external 
abdominal  ring)  is  much  larger  than  the  superior  (internal)  ring. 
The  spermatic  cord  and  vessels  in  the  male,  and  the  external 
mammary  vessels  in  the  female  pass  through  the  inguinal  canal. 

Describe  the  navicular  sheath. 

The  navicular  sheath  is  a  fibrous  membrane  which  covers  the  os 
naviculare  and  the  single  ligament  of  the  pedal  articulation.  It  is 
reflected  on  the  plantar  aponeurosis  of  the  flexor  pedis  tendon,  in 
front  of  this  ligament  and  ascends  to  the  inferior  sac  of  the  sesamoid 
sheath,  where  it  is  reflected  upon  itself,  thereby  forming  two  culs-de- 
sac,  one  superior  and  one  inferior.  It  is  lined  by  a  synovial  mem- 
brane which  aids  the  aponeurosis  of  the  tendon  in  gliding  over  the 
navicular  bone. 

Circulatory  Organs 

State  the  position  of  the  heart  and  show  its  relation  to  the  right  and 
left  walls  of  the  chest  and  to  the  sternum  in  the  horse 
and  dog. 

In  the  horse,  the  heart  occupies  a  position  in  the  middle  line  of 
the  chest,  corresponding  to  the  third,  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  ribs, 
being  enclosed  in  a  sac  and  suspended  from  the  spine  by  its  aortic 
vessels.  Its  base  is  uppermost,  its  apex  nearly  touches  the  sternum 
but  does  not  rest  on  the  ribs.  The  diaphragm  lies  just  behind  the 
apex.  The  heart  is  separated  from  the  right  wall  of  the  chest  by 
the  right  lobe  of  the  lung.  There  is  a  triangular  notch  in  the  left 
lung  which  exposes  the  left  ventricle  and  allows  it  to  make  its 
impulse  felt  against  the  chest  wall. 

In  the  dog,  the  heart  occupies  a  more  nearly  median  position, 
resting  almost  entirely  on  the  upper  face  of  the  sternum  and  about 
equidistant  from  the  right  and  left  chest  wall. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  63 

Describe  the  right  and  left  heart,  noting  the  size  of  the  different  cavi- 
ties, the  thickness  of  the  walls  at  different  points,  the  nature, 
position  and  dependencies  of  the  four  sets  of  valves  and 
the  source  and  distribution  of  the  vascular  and  nervous 
supply. 

The  heart  is  divided  by  a  vertical  septum  into  two  parts,  which 
are  further  divided  into  four  by  a  transverse  septum.  The  cavities 
above  the  transverse  septum  are  called  right  and  left  auricles,  those 
below,  the  right  and  left  ventricles,  the  two  latter  constituting  the 
largest  portion  of  the  heart. 

The  right  auricle :  The  walls  are  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  It  receives  the  anterior  vena  cava,  posterior  vena  cava, 
vena  azygos,  and  the  large  coronary  veins.  It  opens,  in  its  floor,  into 
the  right  ventricle  through  the  aurieuloventricular  opening. 

The  right  ventricle :  Its  walls  are  on  an  average  six-tenths  of  an 
inch  thick.  It  has  two  openings,  the  aurieuloventricular,  and  the 
pulmonary  opening  into  the  pulmonary  artery. 

The  left  auricle :  Similar  to  the  right.  The  walls  are  irregular 
in  thickness,  varying  from  one-third  of  an  inch  in  some  places  to  a 
very  thin  membranous  wall  in  others.  It  receives  the  pulmonary 
veins  and  empties  through  the  aurieuloventricular  opening  in  its 
floor  into  the  left  ventricle. 

The  left  ventricle :  Its  walls  are  on  an  average  one  and  one-fifth 
to  one  and  five-eighths  inches  in  thickness.  Two  openings,  the 
aurieuloventricular  and  aortic. 

The  valves  of  the  heart  are  made  of  fibrous  segments.  The  right 
aurieuloventricular  is  composed  of  three  segments  (tricuspid) 
attached  by  their  free  edges  to  the  ventricular  wall  by  tendinous 
cords,  chordffi  tendinse.  The  left  aurieuloventricular  is  composed 
of  two  segments  (bicuspid)  and  is  similarly  attached.  The  pul- 
monary and  aortic  openings  of  the  ventricles  are  closed  by  the  semi- 
lunar valves  made  up  of  three  segments  which  are  also  attached 
by  tendinous  cords. 

The  blood  supply  of  the  heart  is  by  the  two  coronary  arteries, 
branches  from  the  trunk  of  the  aorta  at  the  sigmoid  valves.  Each 
divides  into  two  principal  branches,  one  passing  along  the  horizontal, 
the  other  in  the  vertical  furrow  of  the  heart.  The  venous  blood  is 
returned  to  the  right  auricle  by  the  coronary  vein. 

The  nerves  of  the  heart,  furnished  by  the  cardiac  plexus,  come 
from  the  pneumogastric  and  sympathetic. 

Mention  all  the  arteries  given  off  from  the  posterior  aorta. 

Intercostals,  phrenic,  lumbar,  middle  sacral,  broncho-oesophageal, 
coeliac  axis,  anterior  mesenteric,  posterior  mesenteric,  renal,  sper- 


64  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

matic,  small  testicular  (uterine  in  females),  external  and  internal 
iliacs. 

Name  the  terminal  branches  of  the  anterior  aorta. 
The  two  axillary  arteries. 

Name  in  regular  order  the  important  blood-vessels  through  which  the 
blood  moves  in  passing  from  the  left  ventricle  to  the  right 
front  foot. 
Common  aorta,  anterior  aorta,  axillary,  humeral,  posterior  radial, 
collateral  artery  of  the  cannon,  digital. 

Describe  the  posterior  radial  artery  and  give  its  branches. 

It  arises  from  the  humeral  artery  near  the  inferior  extremity  of 
the  humerus,  passes  along  the  internal  ligament  of  the  elbow- joint, 
along  the  inner  side  of  the  radius  to  the  inferior  extremity  of  the 
same,  where  it  divides  into  the  common  interosseous,  metacarpal 
and  collateral  artery  of  the  cannon,  giving  off  branches  in  its  course 
to  the  elbow  and  muscles  of  the  forearm. 

Describe  the  digital  arteries  and  their  branches. 

The  digital  arteries  originate  just  above  the  fetlock,  from  the 
terminal  extremity  of  the  collateral  artery  of  the  cannon,  and 
descend  one  to  the  right,  the  other  to  the  left,  along  the  margin  of 
the  flexor  tendons  to  the  basilar  process  of  the  pedal  bone,  where 
they  bifurcate  to  form  the  plantar  and  preplantar  ungual  arteries. 

Several  small  branches  are  given  off  at  the  fetlock  to  the  articu- 
lation, sesamoid  sheath  and  tendons.  Near  the  middle  of  the  os 
suffraginis,  the  perpendicular  artery,  with  anterior  and  posterior 
branches,  encircles  the  limb,  and  by  anastomosing  both  before  and 
behind,  supplies  the  neighboring  tissues.  Small  branches  are  given 
off  to  the  plantar  cushion  and  coronary  circle.  The  preplantar 
ungual  enters  foramina  in  the  os  pedis.  The  plantar  ungual  passes 
into  the  plantar  fissure,  plantar  canal  and  semilunar  sinus  and  unites 
with  the  opposite  to  form  the  semilunar  anastomosis. 

Give  the  origin  and  the  distribution  of  the  brachial  artery. 

The  brachial,  or  axillary,  arteries,  two  in  number,  are  the  ter- 
minal branches  of  the  anterior  aorta.  They  give  off  the  following 
branches:  dorsal,  superior  cervical,  vertebral,  internal  thoracic, 
external  thoracic,  superior  cervical,  suprascapular  and  subscapular ; 
after  giving  off  these  branches,  the  brachial  artery  is  continued  as 
the  humeral  artery.  In  addition  to  those  named,  the  right  axillary 
'  gives  off,  near  its  origin,  the  common  trunk  of  the  two  carotid 
arteries. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  65 

Name  the  branches  of  the  external  carotid  artery. 

Glossofaeial,  maxillomuscular,  posterior  auricular,  superficial 
temporal  and  internal  maxillary. 

State  the  anatomic  relations  of  the  external  carotid  artery. 

From  its  origin  to  the  hyoid  bone,  it  is  related  inwardly  to  the 
guttural  pouch  and  the  glossopharyngeal  and  superior  laryngeal 
nerves;  outwardly,  to  the  outer  belly  of  the  digastric  muscle  and 
the  hypoglossal  nerve ;  throughout  the  rest  of  its  course,  it  is  com- 
prised between  the  guttural  pouch,  the  parotid  gland,  the  great 
cornu  of  the  hyoid  bone,  and  the  inner  side  of  the  posterior  border 
of  the  inferior  maxilla. 

Give  the  course  and  the  termination  of  the  vertebral  artery. 

It  arises  from  the  axillary  at  the  first  intercostal  space.  It  passes 
beneath  the  transverse  process  of  the  seventh  and  through  the 
foramina  of  the  upper  six  cervical  vertebrse,  anastomosing  with 
the  retrograde  branch  of  the  occipital  and  giving  off  muscular  and 
spinal  branches  at  each  intervertebral  space. 

Give  the  blood  supply  of  the  larynx. 

The  laryngeal  artery,  which  arises  from  the  common  carotid  at  a 
short  distance  from  its  termination,  just  behind  the  larynx. 

Give  the  blood  supply  of  the  salivary  glands. 

SmaU  branches  from  the  external  carotid  supply  the  parotid  and 
submaxillary  glands.  The  sublingual  is  supplied  by  the  sublingual 
artery. 

Trace  the  course  of  the  blood  from  the  left  ventricle  to  the  left  hind  foot, 
naming  in  regular  order  all  the  important  vessels  through 
which  the  blood  passes. 
The  common  aorta,  posterior  aorta,  external  iliac,  femoral,  popli- 
teal, anterior  tibial,  collateral  artery  of  the  cannon,  digital,  plantar 
and  preplantar.     A  collateral  stream  from  the  popliteal  passes 
through  the  posterior  tibial  region  and  gives  off  an  interosseous 
branch  which  unites  with  the  collateral  artery  of  the  cannon  just 
above  the  fetlock. 

Describe  the  origin  and  distribution  of  the  external  iliac  artery. 

Originates  in  common  with  the  internal  iliac  from  the  posterior 
extremity  of  the  posterior  aorta  and  gives  off  the  small  testicular, 
or  artery  of  the  cord  in  the  male,  or  the  uterine  in  the  female,  and 
the  circumflex  iliac;  then  it  is  continued  as  the  femoral  upon 
leaving  the  anterior  border  of  the  pubis. 
5 


66  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  cceliac  axis  and  name  its  branches. 

The  ccBliac  axis  is  a  short  trunk  which  arises  from  the  posterior 
aorta  immediately  upon  the  entrance  of  that  vessel  into  the  abdom- 
inal cavity.  After  a  course  of  three-fourths  inch,  it  separates  into 
three  large  branches,  the  gastric,  splenic  and  hepatic  arteries. 

Describe  the  origin  and  the  distribution  of  the  internal  iliac  artery. 

The  internal  iliac  artery  arises  from  the  posterior  extremity  of 
the  posterior  artery  and  terminates  near  the  insertion  of  the  small 
psoas  muscle  by  dividing  into  the  obturator  and  iliofemoral  arteries. 
It  gives  off  the  following  branches:  umbiiieal,  internal  pudic,  ilio- 
lumbar, lateral  sacral  and  gluteal. 

Give  the  course  and  the  termination  of  the  femoral  artery. 

It  arises  at  the  anterior  border  of  the  pubis  as  a  continuation 
of  the  external  iliac  and  descends  to  the  superior  extremity  of  the 
gastrocnemius,  where  it  is  continued  as  the  popliteal.  The  following 
branches  are  given  off:  prepubic,  femoris  profunda,  superficial 
femoris,  small  muscular,  and  saphena. 

Give  the  blood  supply  of  the  stomach. 

Supplied  by  the  gastric  artery,  a  branch  of  the  cceliac  axis. 

Give  the  blood  supply  of  the  spleen. 

Supplied  by  the  splenic  artery,  a  branch  of  the  cceliac  axis. 

Give  the  blood  supply  of  the  uterus. 

The  uterine  artery  which  arises  from  the  posterior  aorta  or  from 
the  external  iliac  near  its  origin;  the  utero-ovarian  which  arises 
from  the  posterior  mesenteric. 

Give  the  functional  and  nutritive  blood  supply  of  the  liver  and  lungs. 
Liver :  Functional  supply,  the  portal  vein ;  nutritive,  the  hepatic 
artery,  a  branch  of  the  ccelic  axis. 

Lungs:  Functional,  pulmonary  artery;  nutritive,  bronchial 
artery  which  is  given  off  from  the  posterior  aorta  near  the  first  pair 
of  intercostals. 

Give  the  blood  supply  of  bone. 

The  arteries  of  bones  belong  to  three  orders,  viz. : 
Those  of  the  first  order  penetrate  to  the  interior  of  the  medullary 
canal  of  long  bones,  by  a  particular  orifice,  the  nutrient  foraanen. 
They  soon  divide  into  a  network  that  lines  the  walls  of  the  canal  and 
enters  the  medulla.  This  network  communicates  with  the  arteries 
of  the  second  order  which  go  to  the  spongy  tissue  of  the  extremities 
of  the  long  bones.     The  arteries  of  the  third  order  are  branches 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  67 

of  the  periostic  network  that  enters  the  superficial  Haversian  canals. 
In  the  tiat  and  short  bones,  there  are  no  arteries  of  the  first  order. 
Describe  the  systemic  circulation. 

The  blood  enters  the  left  auricle  from  the  lungs  through  the 
pulmonary  vein,  passes  through  the  bicuspid  valve  into  the  left 
ventricle,  through  the  semilunar  valve  into  the  common  aorta,  an- 
terior and  posterior  aorta,  from  thence  it  is  distributed  to  all  parts 
of  the  body,  passing  through  arteries,  capillaries  and  into  the  veins 
back  to  the  right  auricle,  through  the  anterior  and  posterior  vena 
cava.    At  the  right  auricle,  the  pulmonary  circulation  begins. 

Describe  the  pulmonary  circulation. 

The  blood  reaches  the  right  auricle  through  the  anterior  and  pos- 
terior vena  cava  and  passes  through  the  tricuspid  valve  into  the  right 
ventricle,  thence  through  the  semilunar  valve  into  the  pulmonary 
artery,  through  which  it  is  carried  to  the  lungs.  In  the  lungs  it  goes 
through  a  fine  network  of  capillaries  and  returns  through  the  pul- 
monary vein  to  the  left  auricle,  here  to  begin  the  systemic  circu- 
lation. 

Describe  the  fetal  circulation  of  the  blood. 

The  blood,  after  interchanging  gases  in  the  placenta,  enters  the 
umbilical  vein  and  is  carried  to  the  liver.  In  the  substance  of  the 
liver,  it  is  mixed  with  the  venous  blood  from  the  intestines  and 
posterior  parts,  through  the  medium  of  the  ductus  venosus,  and  at 
last  arrives  at  the  right  auricle.  From  here  it  passes  into  the  left 
auricle  through  the  foramen  ovale,  thence  into  the  left  ventricle  and 
aorta.  The  greater  portion  is  driven  into  the  vessels  that  supply 
the  head,  neck  and  fore  limbs,  the  remainder  passes  backward  in  the 
posterior  aorta.  After  the  fluid  has  circulated  in  the  anterior  part 
of  the  body,  it  is  returned  to  the  right  auricle  by  the  anterior  vena 
cava.  From  the  right  auricle,  it  passes  to  the  right  ventricle,  and 
from  this  cavity  it  is  pumped  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  thence 
through  the  ductus  arteriosus  into  the  posterior  aorta,  which  carries 
it  to  the  hinder  parts  of  the  body.  The  veins  of  the  hind  parts  unite 
in  forming  the  umbilical  artery,  which  conveys  the  blood  to  the 
placenta.  The  umbilical  artery  is  practically  a  continuation  of  the 
internal  iliacs.     (The  ductus  venosus  only  exists  in  ruminants.) 

Describe  the  umbilical  arteries  of  the  foetus. 

The  umbilical  arteries  arise  from  the  internal  iliacs  and  pass 
along  the  sides  of  the  bladder.  Escaping  at  the  umbilicus,  they 
arrive  at  the  terminal  extremity  of  the  amniotic  portion  of  the 
cord,  and,  giving  off  some  branches  to  the  amnion,  they  are  continued 


68  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

to  the  extremity  of  the  allantoid  portion,  where  they  end  in  an 
expansion  of  placental  ramifications. 

Describe  the  ductus  arteriosus  and  the  foramen  ovale  in  the  foetus. 
Give  their  uses  and  state  what  remnants  of  these  can  be 
found  in  mature  life. 

The  ductus  arteriosus  is  a  short  vessel  which  connects  the  pul- 
monary artery,  near  its  origin,  to  the  posterior  aorta.  In  fetal  life, 
the  lungs  do  not  functionate,  hence  the  blood  is  not  carried  to  them 
but  takes  this  short  course  to  the  aorta.  This  duct  remains,  but  in 
mature  life  is  represented  by  a  yellow  elastic  fibrous  cord  (the  liga- 
mentum  arteriosum). 

The  foramen  ovale  is  the  opening  between  the  right  and  left 
auricles,  through  wbich  the  blood  passes  in  fetal  life.  It  is  pro- 
vided with  a  valve,  the  Eustachian  valve  (absent  in  horse  and  pig), 
that  stretches  from  the  mouth  of  the  posterior  vena  cava  to  the 
annulus,  or  thickened  border  of  the  foramen.  The  function  of  this 
valve  is  to  direct  the  blood-stream  into  the  left  auricle,  from  whence 
it  goes  into  the  systemic  circulation.  In  mature  life,  the  foramen 
ovale  is  represented  by  a  depression  of  a  thin  membrane,  surrounded 
by  the  ring  of  Vieussens,  or  annulus  ovalis.  Occasionally  the  open- 
ing persists  throughout  adult  life. 

Describe  the  anterior  vena  cava. 

A  large  trunk  extending  from  the  entrance  of  the  chest  to  the 
right  auricle.  It  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  axillary  and 
the  two  jugular  veins.  It  receives  in  its  course :  the  internal 
thoracic,  vertebral,  superior  cervical  and  dorsal  veins,  and  the 
great  vena  azygos. 

Give  the  origin  of  the  vena  azygos  and  name  its  tributaries. 

Originates  at  the  first  lumbar  vertebra  and  extends  forward  to 
the  sixth  dorsal,  where  it  terminates  in  the  anterior  vena  cava.  Its 
tributaries  are  the  satellite  veins  of  the  first  lumbar  and  all  of  the 
aortic  intercostal  arteries,  right  and  left. 

Describe  the  pulmonary  veins. 

The  pulmonary  veins,  four  to  eight  in  niTmber,  arise  from  the 
substance  of  the  lung,  emerging  immediately^  above  the  origin  of  the 
bronchi.  They  terminate  in  the  left  auricle,  which  they  enter  by  way 
of  four  to  eight  orifices.  They  have  no  valves.  Their  function  is  to 
carry  the  blood  from  the  lungs,  where  it  lias  been  purified,  to  the 
left  auricle  to  begin  the  systemic  circulation. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  69 

Give  the  course  and  relations  of  the  jugular  vein. 

Formed  by  the  union  of  the  superficial  temporal  and  internal 
maxillary  veins,  behind  the  inferior  maxilla.  It  passes  downward 
and  backward,  lodged  at  first  in  the  substance  of  the  parotid  gland, 
afterward  in  the  jugular  furrow  (the  muscular  interspace  between 
the  mastoidohumeralis  and  the  sternomaxillaris).  At  the  inferior 
extremity  of  the  neck,  it  unites  with  its  mate  to  form  the  confluent 
of  the  jugulars.  After  leaving  the  parotid  gland,  the  jugular  is 
covered  externally  by  the  cervical  panniculus.  Inwardly  and 
above,  it  is  related  to  the  subscapulohyoideus  muscle,  which  separates 
it  from  the  carotid,  but  in  its  inferior  part  it  is  in  direct  relation 
with  that  vessel,  the  trachea  and  the  oesophagus. 

Branches :  maxillomuscular,  posterior  auricular,  occipital,  glosso- 
facial,  thyroid,  cephalic,  parotidean  and  many  small  muscular  veins. 

Describe  the  course  and  the  function  of  the  portal  vein. 

It  begins  in  the  sublumbar  region,  by  the  union  of  the  anterior 
and  posterior  mesenteries  and  the  splenic  veins ;  it  is  then  directed 
forward,  traversing  the  pancreatic  ring,  below  the  vena  cava,  and 
is  afterward  lodged  in  the  great  fissure  of  the  liver,  where  it  ramifies 
by  forming  the  interlobular  veins.  It  receives  on  its  course  the 
right  gastro-omental  and  anterior  gastric  veins.  Its  function  is  to 
carry  the  blood  which  comes  from  the  intestinal  walls,  charged  with 
assimilable  substances,  that  are  absorbed  by  the  veins  of  the  villi, 
to  the  liver. 

Give  a  general  description  of  the  lymphatics. 

The  lymphatics  are  vessels  with  very  thin  and  transparent  walls, 
found  all  over  the  body,  except  in  blood-vessels,  nervous  tissue, 
bone,  muscles,  eyeball,  cartilage,  tendons,  the  membranes  of  the 
ovum,  placenta,  umbilical  cord,  cuticle  and  hair.  They  possess 
nutrient  vessels,  no  nerves,  have  valves,  and  carry  lymph  or  chyle 
into  the  vascular  system.  Like  the  veins,  the  lymphatics  terminate 
in  two  principal  trunks,  resembling  the  vena  cava;  and,  like  the 
veins,  have  three  tunics.  The  lymphatics  originate  from  capillaries 
which  form  networks  or  terminal  culs-de-sae.  They  terminate,  as 
before  stated,  by  emptying  into  the  vascular  system;  the  union  of 
the  blood  with  the  Ijrmphatic  system  takes  place  at  the  origin  of  the 
anterior  vena  cava. 
Give  the  course  and  the  termination  of  the  thoracic  duct. 

The  thoracic  duct  receives  all  the  lymphatics  except  those  of  the 
right  side  of  the  head,  neck  and  thorax  and  the  right  anterior 
limb.  It  originates  beneath  the  vertebral  column,  near  the  first 
lumbar  vertebra,  where  it  is  marked  by  a  very  irregular  dila- 


70  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

tation  (receptaeulum  chyli),  passes  forward  through  the  pillars 
of  the  diaphragm  to  the  sixth  dorsal  vertebra,  where  it  passes  to  the 
left  and  empties,  after  a  dilatation,  into  the  anterior  vena  cava  at 
the  junction  of  the  jugulars. 

Describe  the  lymphatic  glands. 

The  lymphatic  glands  are  ovoid,  spherical  or  discoid  bodies  of 
medium  consistency,  which  intercept  the  course  of  lymphatic  vessels 
at  several  points.  Their  number  is  considerable,  and  they  are  rarely 
single,  but  most  frequently  are  collected  in  groups  along  the  blood- 
vessels. All  the  vessels  of  the  lymphatic  system  are  provided  with 
one  or  more  of  these  glands  on  their  course.  The  branch  of  the 
vessel,  entering  the  gland,  is  called  the  afferent,  and  that  leaving, 
the  efferent.  The  capsule  of  the  gland  sends  fibrous  strands  into  its 
substance,  dividing  it  into  very  minute  spaces  (lymph  sinuses) 
which  are  filled  with  lymph  corpuscles.  The  afferent  vessels  take  a 
tortuous  course  and,  communicating  with  the  sinuses,  become 
charged  with  lymph-cells. 

Lymph-glands  are  richly  supplied  with  blood-vessels  which 
penetrate  the  gland  through  the  capsule,  or  enter  at  the  hilum  and 
break  up  into  a  fine-meshed  capillary  network,  branches  of  which 
pass  through  the  lymph  sinuses. 

The  lymph-glands  act  as  filters  for  the  lymphatic  system  and  are 
important  as  a  source  of  leucocytes. 

In  what  part  of  the  intestinal  tract  is  lymphoid  tissue  found  ? 

At  certain  places  in  the  walls  of  the  ileum  there  are  collections 
of  solitary  follicles,  known  as  Peyer  's  patches. 

Give  the  situation  of  the  lymphatic  glands  of  the  thorax. 

1.  Posterior  mediastinal,  a  series  of  small  granular  masses  on  the 
course  of  the  oesophagus. 

2.  The  bronchial,  in  the  angle  of  the  bifurcation  of  the  trachea. 

3.  Two  long  strings  of  lobules  which  extend  on  the  sides  of  the 
inferior  face  of  the  trachea,  from  the  base  of  the  heart  to  near  the 
first  rib. 

Mention  the  location  of  the  following  lymphatic  glands:  posterior 
cervical,  prescapular,  posterior  mediastinal,  inguinal,  popli- 
teal, precrural,  iliac,  axillary  and  bronchial. 
Posterior  cervical,  situated  on  the  side  of  the  terminal  extrem- 
ity of  the  jugular,  within  the  inferior  border  of  the  scalenus  muscle, 
extends  into  the  chest  by  passing  beneath  the  axillary  vessels  and 
ascends  to  the  inner  face  of  the  first  rib. 

Prescapular,  situated  on  the  ascending  branch  of  the  inferior 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  71 

cervical  artery,  beneath  the  iuterual  face  of  the  uiastoidohumeralis 
muscle  and  extends  close  to  the  attachment  of  the  sternomaxillaris 
muscle. 

Posterior  mediastinal  (see  preceding  question). 

Inguinal,  the  deep  inguinal  situated  beneath  the  crural  aponeu- 
rosis and  arch  in  the  interstice  between  the  adductor  muscles  of  the 
leg,  along  with  the  iliac  vessels.  The  superficial  inguinal  are  located 
in  front  of  the  inguinal  ring  at  the  side  of  the  sheath  on  the  track  of 
the  subcutaneous  abdominal  artery. 

Popliteal,  located  behind  the  great  sciatic  nerve  and  gastroc- 
nemius muscle,  between  the  biceps  femoris  and  the  semitendinosus 
muscles,  and  near  the  femoropopliteal  artery. 

Precrural,  located  within  the  anterior  border  of  the  tensor  fascia 
lata,  on  the  course  of  the  circumflex  iliac  artery. 

Iliac,  situated  in  the  triangular  space  between  the  two  branches 
of  the  circumflex  iliac  artery. 

Axillary,  beneath  the  anterior  limb,  inside  the  arm;  one  group 
is  near  the  ulnar  articulation,  the  other,  behind  the  brachial  vessels, 
near  the  common  insertion  of  the  teres  major  and  latissimus  dorsi 
muscles. 

Bronchial  (see  preceding  question). 

State  the  approximate  number  of  mesenteric  lymph-glands. 
About  thirty  in  number. 

Neurology 

The  nervous  system  is  divided  into  two  great  parts,  the  cerebro- 
spinal and  the  sympathetic.  The  cerebrospinal  system  consists  of 
the  brain,  spinal  cord,  ganglia  and  nerves.  The  brain  is  the  central 
portion  of  the  nervous  system  and  is  situated  in  the  cranial  cavity ; 
the  spinal  cord  is,  in  reality,  a  great  extension  of  the  brain  through- 
out the  length  of  the  spinal  canal,  from  which  emerge,  at  numerous 
points,  branches,  nerves,  upon  which  are  noted  enlargements,  called 
ganglia.  The  sympathetic  system  will  be  described  in  answer  to  a 
question  below. 

Name  the  membranes  that  cover  the  brain  and  describe  the  outer  one. 

From  within  outward,  pia  mater,  arachnoid  and  dura  mater. 

The  dura  mater  is  a  strong;  fibrous  membrane,  adherent  to  the 
bony  walls.  It  gives  off  prolongations  into  the  brain,  forms  de- 
pressions for  the  venous  sinuses  and  is  prolonged  on  the  nerves  and 
spinal  cord. 


72  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Name  the  principal  parts  of  the  brain. 

Cerebrum,  cerebellum,  the  isthmus,  and  medulla  oblongata. 

Describe  the  island  of  Reil. 

The  island  of  Reil  is  a  very  small  lobule  of  brain  in  the  fissure 
of  Sylvius,  found  in  man  but  not  in  the  horse. 

Describe  the  optic  thalami. 

The  optic  thalami  are  two  masses  of  gray  matter,  placed  above 
the  crura  cerebri ;  they  are  separated  by  a  deep  groove,  and  form 
the  sides  of  the  third  ventricle.  At  their  posterior  border  are  found 
two  projections,  the  external  and  internal  geniculate  bodies. 

Describe  the  cerebellum. 

The  cerebellum  is  that  part  of  the  brain,  situated  behind  and 
beneath  the  cerebrum,  above  the  isthmus  and  separated  from  the 
cerebrum  by  a  fold  of  the  dura  mater. 

It  is  globular  in  form  and  is  divided  by  two  fissures  into  three 
lobes,  two  lateral  and  a  middle.  The  lateral  lobes  are  convex  and 
show  many  convolutions  or  depressions.  The  middle  lobe  is  dis- 
posed in  a  vermicular  manner,  which  gives  rise  to  the  names  of  the 
two  divisions,  anterior  vermiform  and  superior  vermiform 
processes. 

The  structure  is  gray  externally  and  white  internally  with  a 
tree-like  arrangement  called  the  arhor  vitcB. 

■Describe  the  corpora  quadrigemina. 

These  are  four  round  eminences,  placed  in  pairs,  which  lie 
above  the  cerebral  peduncles.  The  two  posterior,  the  smallest,  are 
also  named  the  tubercula  testes,  and  the  anterior  pair,  the  tubercula 
nates.    The  nates  are  gray  and  the  testes  are  white. 

Describe  the  spinal  cord,  using  a  diagram. 

The  spinal  cord  is  the  portion  of  the  nervous  system  which  is 
enclosed  in  the  spinal  canal  from  the  occipital  foramen  to  the  upper 
third  of  the  sacral  canal.  Its  average  weight  in  the  horse  is  10^' 
ounces.  It  is  slightly  flattened  above  and  below,  and  has  two  enlarge- 
ments in  its  course,  one  between  the  fifth  cervical  and  second  dorsal 
vertebra;,  the  brachial  bulb,  the  other,  near  the  middle  of  tlie  loins, 
the  lumbar  enlargement. 

The  structure  of  the  cord  is,  externally,  white  matter,  internally, 
gray.  The  gray  matter  is  arranged  like  two  horns,  the  larger  ends 
of  which  point  down  and  out,  but  do  not  reach  the  surface,  the 
smaller  look  upward  and  outward,  reaching  the  surface.  The  two 
horns  are  connected  by  a  transverse  band   (similar  to  the  letter 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  73 

"H"),  called  the  commissure,  which  shows  in  its  middle  the  central 
canal  of  the  cord. 

The  cord  is  traversed  throughout  its  length  by  two  fissures,  the 
superior  of  which  is  narrower  and  shallower  than  the  inferior,  which 
is  only  separated  from  the  gray  commissure  by  a  white  band,  the 
white  commissure. 

The  white  matter  is  divided  on  each  side  into  three  columns.  The 
superior  column  lies  between  the  superior  fissure  and  the  superior 
or  sensory  nerve  root.  The  inferior,  between  the  inferior  fissure 
and  the  inferior  or  motor  root.  The  lateral  lies  between  the  two. 
The  cord  is  covered  by  membranes  similar  to  the  brain,  viz.,  dura 
mater,  arachnoid  and  pia  mater.  The  posterior  end  of  the  cord 
is  marked  by  a  narrow  prolongation,  the  filum  terminale. 

DescriBe  the  spinal  nerves. 

The  spinal  nerves  emanate  from  the  spinal  cord  and  leave  the 
vertebral  canal  by  the  intervertebral  foramina  to  proceed  to  the 
various  organs.  They  proceed  from  the  lateral  aspects  of  the  cord 
by  two  orders  of  roots:  one  motor,  the  other  sensitive.  These  two 
roots  unite  into  a  very  short  trunk  in  passing  through  the  inter- 
vertebral foramen  and  this  mixed  nerve  divides  almost  immediately 
into  two  terminal  branches.  On  the  superior  root,  before  its  union 
with  the  inferior,  a  ganglion  is  found.  Passing  out  with  the  in- 
ferior root  of  the  spinal  nerve,  but  indistinguishable  from  it,  is  a 
branch  of  nerve  known  as  the  white  ramus  communicans  which 
leaves  the  main  trunk  after  the  mixed  nerve  has  been  formed,  and 
runs  to  a  distinct  system  known  as  the  sympathetic. 

How  many  pairs  of  spinal  nerves  are  there  in  the  horse?     State  the 

relative  number  in  the  cervical,  dorsal,  lumbar,  sacral  and 

coccygeal  regions,  respectively. 

There  are  42  or  43  pairs  of  spinal  nerves  as  follows:  cervical, 

8  pairs;  dorsal,  17  pairs;  lumbar,  6  pairs;  sacral,  5  pairs;  and 

coccygeal,  6  to  7  pairs. 

Name  the  cranial  nerves. 

Olfactory,  optic,  motor  oculi,  patheticum,  trifacial,  abducens, 
facial,  auditory,  glossopharyngeal,  pneumogastric,  spinal  accessory 
and  hypoglossal. 

Describe  the  first  pair  of  cranial  nerves. 

The  olfactory  nerves  originate,  superficially,  in  the  olfactory 
lobe  of  the  brain,  deeply,  from  the  corpus  striatum  and  transverse 
fibres  of  the  pons.  Pass  through  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  ethmoid 
bone  and  are  widely  distributed  over  the  nasal  septum  and  ethmoidal 


74  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

cells  in  the  upper  third  of  the  nasal  fossae.    Function :  preside  over 
the  sense  of  smell. 

Give  the  origin  and  the  distribution  of  the  optic  nerve. 

Origin :  From  the  commissure  and  optic  tracts  which  arise  from 
the  thalamus  and  corpora  quadrigemina. 
Distribution :  To  the  retina. 

Describe  the  third  pair  of  cranial  nerves,  the  oculomotor. 

Originates  superficially  from  the  crura  near  the  interpedun- 
cular fissure,  deeply,  from  the  anterior  border  of  the  pons.  Passes 
through  the  smallest  supraspheuoidal  foramen  of  the  orbit.  Dis- 
tributed to  all  the  muscles  of  the  eye  except  the  external  rectus,  the 
great  oblique  and  part  of  the  posterior  rectus,  and  by  the  ophthalmic 
ganglion  to  the  iris. 

Give  the  origin  and  the  distribution  of  the  fourth  pair  of  cranial  nerves. 
The  patheticum  originates  in  the  band  of  Reil,  behind  the  cor- 
pora quadrigemina  and,  deeply,  from  the  interior  of  the  isthmus. 
It  is  distributed  to  the  great  oblique  muscle  of  the  eye. 

Describe  the  fifth  pair  of  cranial  nerves,  the  trifacial. 

This  nerve  originates  by  two  roots,  motor  and  sensory,  in  the 
pons  varolii.  On  the  sensory  branch,  in  the  region  of  the  occipito- 
sphenotemporal  hiatus,  is  a  large  ganglion,  the  Gasserian,  which 
gives  rise  to  the  three  branches  of  the  nerve,  viz.,  the  superior 
maxillary,  the  inferior  maxillary  and  the  ophthalmic.  The  motor 
root  passes  along,  but  outside  of,  the  ganglion  and  unites  with  the 
fibres  of  the  inferior  maxillary  branch.  So,  although  the  fifth  pair 
is  called  a  mixed  nerve,  in  reality  only  the  inferior  maxillary  branch 
is  composed  of  sensory  and  motor  fibres. 

The  branches  emerge  from  the  cranial  cavity  as  follows:  the 
first  branch  (ophthalmic)  passes  through  the  smallest  of  the  large 
supraspheuoidal  foramina  to  the  orbit  and  is  distributed  to  the  skin 
of  the  forehead  and  eyelids,  lachrymal  gland  and  nasal  fossa.  The 
second,  superior  maxillary,  passes  through  the  foramen  rotundum 
to  the  orbit  and  along  the  infra-orbital  canal,  where  it  ends  in  small 
branches  to  the  face  and  upper  lip.  It  sends  branches  to  the  eyeball, 
palate,  nose  and  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  third,  inferior  maxil- 
lary, passes  through  the  foramen  ovale  to  the  temporomaxillary 
articulation  and  then  passes  downward  to  enter  the  inferior  dental 
canal ;  it  supplies  the  muscles  of  mastication  and  the  teeth  of  the 
lower  jaw. 

On  the  course  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  the  following  ganglia 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  75 

from  the  sympathetic  system  are  seen :  the  ophthalmic  or  ciliary,  the 
sphenopalatine  or  Meckel 's,  and  the  otic  or  Arnold 's. 

Describe  the  sixth  pair  of  cranial  nerves. 

The  abducens  originates  superficially  from  the  medulla  behind 
the  pons  and,  deeply,  from  the  inferior  pyramid  and  lateral  tract  of 
the  medulla. 

It  leaves  the  cranial  cavity  with  the  ophthalmic  branch  of  the 
fifth,  and  is  distributed  to  the  external  rectus  muscle  of  the  eye. 

Describe  the  seventh  pair  of  cranial  nerves,  the  facial. 

Originates  superficially  from  the  medulla  behind  the  pons  and, 
deeply,  in  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle.  It  escapes  from  the 
cranial  cavity  through  tlie  internal  auditory  meatus  with  the  eighth 
pair,  enters  the  aqueduct  of  Fallopius,  has  the  geniculate  ganglion 
developed  on  it  and  passes  out  through  the  stylomastoid  foramen  to 
the  muscles  of  the  face,  ears,  lips,  nostrils  and  eyelids. 

Branches :  great  petrossal,  to  Meckel 's  ganglion ;  small  petrossal, 
to  otic  ganglion ;  tympanitic,  to  stapedius ;  chorda  tympani,  to  tongue 
and  mouth;  muscular,  to  occipitostyloid,  digastric,  stylohyoid  and 
cervical  muscles ;  auricular,  to  the  ear  and  face. 

Describe  the  auditory  nerve  (eighth  pair). 

Originates  in  the  medulla,  below  the  seventh  pair.  Leaves  the 
cranial  cavity  with  the  seventh  pair  and  is  distributed  to  the  internal 
ear  by  two  branches,  the  cochlear  and  the  vestibular. 

Describe  the  ninth  pair  of  cranial  nerves,  glossopharyngeal. 

Originates  in  the  medulla  and  more  deeply  in  the  floor  of  the 
fourth  ventricle.  Leaves  the  cranial  cavity  by  the  posterior  fora- 
men lacerum  and  is  distributed  to  the  back  part  of  the  tongue,  and 
pharynx. 

Branches:  Jacobson's  nerve  to  the  tympanum;  fllaments  com- 
municating with  the  superior  cervical  ganglion;  carotid  and 
pharyngeal. 

Give  the  origin  and  the  distribution  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve. 

The  pneumogastric,  vagus  or  tenth  pair,  originates  in  the 
medulla  and  passes  through  the  posterior  lacerated  foramen  to  be 
distributed  to  the  oesophagus,  pharynx,  lungs,  bronchi,  trachea, 
heart,  stomach  and  intestines.  Its  principal  branches  are :  1, 
superior  larjmgeal  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  larynx  and  crico- 
thyroid muscle ;  2,  inferior  larjoigeal  to  all  the  muscles  of  the  larynx 
except  the  cricothyroid;  3,  bronchial  to  the  bronchi  and  lungs; 
4,  oesophageal  to  the  oesophagus,  stomach,  liver  and  solar  plexus. 


76  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  spinal  accessory  nerve. 

The  eleventh  pair  of  cranial  nerves,  spinal  accessory,  originate 
along  the  whole  cervical  region  of  the  cord,  and  from  the  fourth 
ventricle.  It  enters  the  cranium  through  the  foramen  magnum 
and  escapes  through  the  foramen  lacerum  to  be  distributed  to  the 
muscles  of  the  neck  and  thorax.  It  gives  off  the  following  branches : 
to  the  cervical  sympathetic,  sternomaxillaris,  mastoidohumeralis, 
cervical  and  dorsal  trapezius  muscles  and  motor  fibres  to  the  vagus. 

Describe  the  hypoglossal  or  twelfth  pair  of  cranial  nerves. 

Originates  in  the  medulla  and  leaves  the  cranium  through  the 
condyloid  foramen  to  be  distributed  to  the  muscles  of  the  tongue  and 
depressor  muscles  of  the  larynx. 

Describe  the  formation  of  the  brachial  plexus. 

Formed  from  the  inferior  branches  of  the  sixth,  seventh  and 
eighth  cervical  and  first  and  second  dorsal  spinal  nerves. 

Give  the  nerve  supply  of  the  extensors  of  the  forearm. 
Radial. 

What  is  the  nerve  supply  of  the  flexors  of  the  forearm? 
Median. 

Describe  the  median  nerve. 

The  median  nerve  arises  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  brachial 
plexus  and  a  branch  from  the  musculocutaneous.  It  passes  down 
in  front  of  the  humeral  artery,  along  the  inner  side  of  the  radius  to 
the  lower  one-third  of  the  same,  where  it  bifurcates  into  the  external 
and  internal  plantar. 

It  gives  rise  to  the  following  branches:  To  the  flexors  of  the 
forearm  and  subcutaneous  region  of  the  forearm;  the  plantars 
which  give  off  the  anterior,  middle  and  posterior  digitals  at  the 
fetlock  and  supply  the  phalangeal  region. 

Give  the  origin  and  the  distribution  of  the  posterior  digital  nerve. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question.  Originates  from  the  plantars 
at  the  fetlock  and  is  distributed  to  the  podophyllous  and  osseous 
structures  of  the  foot. 

Of  what  is  the  lumbosacral  plexus  formed? 

Last  two  lumbar  and  first  three  sacral  spinal  nerves. 

What  nerve  supplies  the  following  named  muscles  of  the  hind  limb: 
gastrocnemius,  flexor  pedis  perforans  and  flexor  pedis  per- 
foratus? 
Branches  of  the  great  sciatic. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  77 

Give  the  nerve  supply  of  the  salivary  glands. 

Parotid :  from  the  facial  and  inferior  maxillary  nerves. 
Submaxillary:  from  the  carotid  plexus. 
Sublingual :  from  the  lingual  and  carotid  plexus. 

Give  the  nerve  supply  of  the  larynx. 

Inferior  and  superior  laryngeal  from  the  pneumogastric. 

Give  the  nerve  supply  of  the  spleen. 

Branches  from  the  solar  plexus. 

Give  the  nerve  supply  of  the  stomach. 

Pneumogastric  and  solar  plexus. 

What  is  the  nerve  supply  of  the  uterus  ? 

Branches  from  the  small  mesenteric  and  pelvic  plexuses. 

Describe  briefly  the  sympathetic  nervous  system. 

This  extensive  system,  composed  of  nerves  and  ganglia,  is  de- 
rived from  the  spinal  cord  and  brain.  It  consists  of  two  long  cords 
lying  under  the  spinal  column,  from  the  head  to  the  tail.  From 
the  great  number  of  ganglia  along  its  course,  there  arise  very  fine 
nerves  which  are  distributed  to  the  blood-vessels,  viscera  and  glands. 
The  system  is  divided  into  cephalic,  cervical,  dorsal,  lumbar  and 
sacral  portions. 

Ganglia  are  distributed  as  follows:  cephalic,  three  on  the  fifth 
nerve  (see  above)  ;  cervical  region,  two,  superior  and  inferior  caro- 
tid; dorsal,  seventeen  below  the  vertebrocostal  articulations  (most 
important  is  the  solar  plexus)  ;  lumbar,  six  on  the  psoas  parvus 
muscle ;  sacral,  four  beneath  the  sacrum. 

The  function  of  the  sympathetic  system  may  be  summarized 
thus:  1,  supplies  the  blood-vessels  with  constrictor  and  dilator 
fibres;  2,  supplies  the  viscera  with  motor  and  inhibitory  fibres; 
3,  accelerator  fibres  to  the  heart ;  4,  dilator  fibres  for  the  pupil ;  5, 
secretory  fibres  for  sweat,  salivary  and  sebaceous  glands;  6,  motor 
fibres  to  the  muscles  of  the  hair ;  7,  trophic  fibres  which  exercise  an 
effect  on  the  nutrition  of  a  part. 

Digestive  Orgajsts 

Name  the  organs  of  prehension,  deglutition  and  digestion. 

Prehension :  lips,  tongue  and  incisor  teeth. 
Deglutition :  hard  palate,  tongue,  pharynx  and  oesophagus. 
Digestion:  salivary  glands,  stomach,  intestines,  liver,  pancreas 
and  teeth. 


3-3 

3-3 

1-1 

1-1 

3-3 
3-3 

3-3 
3-3' 

Total  40. 

0-0 
4-4 

0-0 
0-0 

3-3 
3-3 

3-3 
3-3 

Total  32. 

3-3 
3-3 

1-1 
1-1 

3-3 
3-3 

3-3 

4-4 

Total  42. 

78  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  the  permanent  dental  formula  of  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  ox,  (c) 
the  dog. 

(a)    '^ 
(b) 

(c) 

Describe  an  incisor  tooth. 

Pyramidal,  flattened  from  before,  backward,  with  a  single  fang. 
Three  surfaces,  anterior,  indented  by  a  slight  longitudinal  furrow, 
which  is  prolonged  to  the  root ;  a  posterior  face,  rounded  from  side 
to  side  and  concave  from  above  downward,  and  two  borders,  of  which 
the  internal  is  always  thicker  than  the  external;  last,  a  surface  of 
friction,  the  table. 

In  composition,  there  are  three  fundamental  substances:  the 
dentin  envelops  the  pulp  cavity,  the  enamel  covers  the  dentin.  The 
enamel  is  doubled  in  the  external  dental  cavity,  lining  it  throughout, 
and  when  the  surface  of  friction  is  in  wear,  a  ring  of  enamel  sur- 
rounds that  surface  and  an  internal  ring  of  the  same  surrounds  the 
infundibulum.  The  first  circle  forms  what  is  called  the  encircling 
enamel ;  the  second,  the  central  enamel.  Over  the  enamel  is  a  pro- 
tecting substance,  the  cementum  or  crusta  petrosa,  which  disappears 
soon  after  the  tooth  becomes  in  wear. 

Give  the  general  arrangement  of  dentin,  enamel  and  cementum  from 
without,  inward,  in  the  following  teeth:  (a)  incisor,  (b) 
canine,  (c)  molar. 

(a)  Cementum,  enamel  and  dentin. 

(b)  Cement,  enamel  and  dentin. 

(c)  External  cement,  external  enamel,  dentin,  internal  enamel 
and  internal  cement. 

State  the  difference  between  the  incisors  of  the  horse  and  those  of 
the  ox. 
(See  description  of  horse's  incisor  above.) 

In  the  ox,  the  incisors  are  eight  in  number,  all  in  the  lower  jaw. 
They  are  not  fixed  in  the  alveoli,  as  in  the  horse,  but  have  a  certain 
degree  of  mobility.  The  root  is  more  conical  in  shape,  giving  the 
tooth  a  shovel-like  appearance,  the  root  being  the  handle.  On  the 
middle  of  the  internal  face,  is  a  conical  eminence,  the  base  of  which 
widens  and  terminates  near  the  free  extremity  of  the  tooth.  As 
age  and  wear  advance,  the  teeth  seem  to  separate  from  one  another, 
and  in  youth  they  only  touch  by  their  extremities. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  79 

Describe  the  appearance  of  the  incisors  of  the  horse  at  the  age  of  (a) 
5  years,  (b)  lo  years. 

(a)  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  nippers  are  worn  more  or  less  com- 
pletely. The  intermediates  are  on  a  level  with  the  nippers  and 
their  posterior  border  is  level  with  the  anterior.  The  corners  are 
lower  than  the  intermediates.  There  is  a  notch  on  the  posterior  which 
is  lower  than  the  anterior  border ;  sometimes  this  notch  is  very  deep 
and  extends  down  on  the  posterior  face  of  the  tooth.  The  corners 
are  fresh  and  well  grown  out.  The  dental  arches  form  a  regular 
semicircle  from  above,  downward,  and  from  one  side  to  the  other. 

(b)  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  nippers  are  rounded.  The  central 
enamel  is  round  and  small  and  very  near  the  posterior  border.  The 
intermediates  are  nearly  round,  while  the  corners  stUl  remain  oval. 
In  profile,  the  arch  of  the  upper  and  lower  teeth  from  above,  down- 
ward, becomes  more  angular. 

Give  the  dental  formula  of  (a)  a  six-year-old  mare,  (b)  a  seven-year-old 
cow,  (c)  a  one-year-old  dog. 
At  the  ages  stated,  these  animals  would  have  all  their  permanent 
teeth. 

(a) 
(b) 

(c) 

What  modifications  are  seen  in  the  upper  and  lower  molars  of  the  horse 
and  how  do  these  modifications  affect  decay  ? 
The  inferior  molars  are  somewhat  longer  and  much  more  flat- 
tened than  the  superior.  Their  enamel  is  but  a  single  organ  and  is 
not  divided  into  internal  and  external  parts  as  in  the  superior 
molars.  In  the  superior,  the  two  central  rings  of  enamel  completely 
enclose  the  infundibula.  This  arrangement  renders  the  upper 
molars  slightly  more  susceptible  to  decay  because  there  is  greater 
possibility  of  the  enamel  being  broken  and  an  opening  for  micro- 
organisms being  produced,  resulting  in  caries. 

Describe  the  tongue. 

The  tongue  is  a  fleshy  organ,  elongated  anteroposteriorly,  flat- 
tened on  each  side,  and  fixed  to  the  os  hyoides  and  inferior  maxilla 
by  the  muscles  forming  the  basis  of  its  structure,  or  by  the  membrane 
covering  it.  It  lies  in  the  intermaxillary  space,  extending  from  the 
back  part  of  the  mouth  to  the  incisor  teeth,  and  rests  on  a  kind  of 
wide  sling  formed  by  the  two  mylohyoidean  muscles.    The  anterior 


3-3 
3-3 

0-0 
0-0 

3-3 
3-3 

3-3 
3-3 

Total  36 

Q-0 

4-4 

0-0 
0-0 

3-3 
3-3 

3-3 
3-3* 

Total  32, 

3-3 
3-3 

1-1 
1-1 

3-3 
3-3 

3-3 

Total  42, 

80  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

extremity  of  the  tongue,  the  free  portion,  is  quite  free  from  the 
middle  of  the  interdental  space  to  the  tip ;  by  its  inferior  face,  it  is 
fixed  to  the  body  of  the  inferior  maxilla  by  a  fold  of  mucous  mem- 
brane, the  freenum  linguae. 

The  superior  surface  of  the  tongue  is  not  smooth  but  is  covered 
with  innumerable  papillee,  which,  according  to  their  shape,  are 
termed  filiform,  fungiform  and  caleiform. 

The  blood  supply  to  the  tongue  is  by  the  lingual  and  sublingual 
arteries  and  the  nerve  supply  by  the  lingual,  ninth  and  twelfth  pairs. 

Function :  concerned  in  prehension,  mastication,  deglutition  and 
taste. 

Name  the  three  principal  salivary  glands  and  the  duct  or  ducts  of  each. 
Parotid,  Steno's  duct;  submaxillary,  Wharton's  duct;  sublin- 
gual, 15  or  20  ducts  (of  Rivinus). 

Describe  the  pharynx,  giving  particular  attention  to  its  connection  with 
the  mouth,  nose  and  ears. 
The  pharynx  is  a  membranous  vestibule  common  to  the  digestive 
and  air  passages,  situated  behind  the  soft  palate;  attached  above 
to  the  base  of  the  cranium  and  below  to  the  laryngeal  apparatus. 

It  communicates  with  the  mouth  through  the  isthmus  of  the 
fauces,  with  the  nose  through  the  posterior  nares,  and  with  the 
middle  ear  through  the  guttural  pouch  and  eustachian  tube. 

Describe  the  oesophagus  and  give  its  relations. 

The  oesophagus  is  an  elongated,  muscular  canal  extending  from 
the  pharynx  to  the  stomach.  It  is  made  up  of  superficial  longi- 
tudinal and  deep  circular  muscular  fibres  and  is  lined  internally 
by  mucous  membrane.  At  its  upper  extremity  it  is  comprised  be- 
tween the  guttural  pouch  and  the  posterior  crico-aryteuoid  muscles. 
In  the  cervical  region,  superiorly,  it  lies  between  the  trachea  and  the 
longus  colli  muscles,  bordered  on  the  side  by  the  carotid  artery,  the 
great  sympathetic,  pneumogastric  and  inferior  laryngeal  nerves; 
inferiorly,  it  is  related  to  the  trachea,  internally,  the  inferior  sca- 
lenus muscle  and  the  jugular  vein,  externally.  In  its  thoracic  por- 
tion, it  lies  along  the  trachea,  passes  above  the  left  bronchus,  to  the 
right  of  the  thoracic  aorta,  against  the  internal  face  of  the  lungs. 
Passing  through  the  diaphragm,  it  is  lodged  in  a  fissure  of  the  liver 
and  terminates  in  the  cardiac  opening  of  the  stomach. 

Name  the  organs  contained  in  the  abdominal  cavity. 

Stomach,  large  and  small  intestines,  liver,  pancreas,  spleen,  kid- 
neys, ovaries  and  uterus. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  81 

Describe  the  stomach. 

The  stomach  is  a  muscular  sac,  situated  in  the  diaphragmatic 
region  between  the  oesophagus  and  the  duodenum,  in  which  the 
principal  acts  of  digestion  take  place.  It  has  a  capacity  of  3  to  3I/2 
gallons  and  weighs  from  3  to  4  pounds.  It  is  elongated,  often  con- 
stricted in  its  middle,  and  presents  an  anterior  and  a  posterior  face, 
a  great  curvature  below,  to  which  the  great  omentum  is  attached, 
a  lesser  curvature  above,  to  which  the  oesophagus  and  gastrohepatic 
ligament  are  attached.  In  the  left  extremity  is  an  opening  con- 
tinuous with  the  oesophagus,  and  the  right  extremity  communicates 
with  the  duodenum  through  the  pyloric  orifice. 

Externally,  the  stomach  is  covered  with  a  serous  coat,  the  peri- 
toneum ;  internally,  it  is  lined  with  mucous  membrane  in  which  are 
innumerable  peptic  and  mucous  glands.  The  middle  coat  is  mus- 
cular, the  fibres  of  which  run  in  various  directions. 

Blood  supply:  gastric,  splenic,  pyloric,  oesophageal,  right  and 
left  gastro-epiploic  vessels. 

Nerves :  pneumogastric  and  solar  plexus. 

Give  the  relative  capacity  of  the  gastric  cavities  and  intestines  in  (a) 
horse,  (b)  the  ox,  (c)  the  sheep,  (d)  the  pig,  (e)  the  dog. 

(a)  Stomach  small,  intestines  large. 

(b)  Stomach  large,  intestines  small. 

(c)  Stomach  large,  intestines  small. 

(d)  Stomach  small,  intestines  large. 

(e)  Stomach  small,  intestines  large. 

Describe  the  rumen  of  the  ox. 

The  rumen  is  a  large  reservoir  which  occupies  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  has  a  capacity  of  45  to  50 
gallons.  Elongated  from  before,  behind,  it  presents  two  surfaces, 
superior  and  inferior,  an  anterior  and  posterior  extremity  and  a 
right  and  left  border. 

By  its  superior  surface,  it  is  in  contact  with  the  intestines  and 
its  opposite  face  lies  on  the  inferior  abdominal  wall.  Its  left  border, 
supporting  the  spleen,  extends  to  the  highest  part  of  the  flank  and 
sublumbar  region.  The  right  border  lies  against  the  abomasum. 
The  anterior  extremity  lies  close  to  the  diaphragm  and  receives  the 
insertion  of  the  oesophagus.  The  posterior  extremity  occupies  the 
entrance  to  the  pehac  cavity.  Interiorly,  the  rumen  is  divided  by 
two  septa,  muscular  pillars,  into  a  right  and  left  sac. 

The  rumen  has  three  coats:  outer  serous,  middle  muscular  and 
inner  mucous.  The  mucous  coat  has  innumerable  papillge  similar 
6 


82  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

to  those  on  the  tongue.    Two  openings,  one  into  the  oesophagus,  the 
other  into  the  reticulum,  are  close  together. 

Describe  the  internal  surface  of  the  recticulum  of  the  ox. 

It  is  divided  by  ridges  of  the  mucous  membrane  into  polyhedral 
cells  which  look  like  honeycomb.  In  the  centres  of  the  cells  and 
deeply  situated  are  conical  papillae. 

Name  some  of  the  synonyms  for  the  omasum  and  give  the  reason  for 
these  names. 
Manyplus,  manyplies,  many-leaves  and  psalterium. 
So  named  because  of  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  which  is  disposed  into  25  to  30  unequally  developed 
leaves,  arranged  longitudinally,  adherent  to  the  great  curvature  and 
free  on  the  border  turned  toward  the  lesser  curvature.  This  arrange- 
ment gives  the  opened  organ  an  appearance  not  unlike  that  of  an 
open  book. 

Describe  the  arrangement  of  the  mucous  membrane  in  the  first,  second, 
third  and  fourth  stomachs  of  the  ox. 
See  answers  to  three  preceding  questions.     The  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  fourth  stomach  is  practically  the  same  as  in  the  horse, 
q.v. 

Give  the  length  of  the  intestines  of  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  cow,  (c)  the 
dog. 

(a)   100  feet;  (b)  180  feet;  (c)  14  feet. 

Describe  the  small  intestine  and  name  its  divisions. 

The  small  intestine,  a  tube  75  feet  in  length,  begins  at  the  pyloric 
orifice  of  the  stomach,  turns  transversely  to  the  left,  forms  numerous 
folds,  being  suspended  in  the  mesentery  (a  fold  of  the  peritoneum), 
and  terminates  in  the  ca3cum  in  the  right  hypochondriac  region.  The 
diameter  of  the  tube  is  variable  in  different  portions  and  in  all  por- 
tions depends  upon  the  contraction  of  the  muscular  tunic,  but  aver- 
ages 1  to  1%  inches. 

Three  coats:  outer  serous,  middle  muscular,  and  inner  mucouS. 
Blood  supply  by  the  great  mesenteric  and  cceliac  axis.  Nerves  from 
the  solar  plexus. 

Divisions :  duodenum,  jejunum  and  ileum. 

Describe  the  double  (fixed)  colon. 

The  double  colon  begins  at  the  caecum,  passes  forv/ard,  then 
bends  backward  and  to  the  left,  forming  the  suprasternal  curvature, 
lying  above  the  sternum,  then  backward  and  turning  again  to  form 
the  pelvic  flexure,  then  runs  forward  to  the  diaphragm,  forming 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  83 

tlie  diaphragmatic  flexure,  then  passes  back  with  the  first  portion 
to  terminate  in  the  small  (floating)  colon. 

Throughout  its  length,  it  is  traversed  by  from  1  to  4  longitudinal, 
muscular  bands  which  hold  the  transverse  folds  in  position.  It  is 
made  up  of  three  coats:  outer  serous,  middle  muscular  and  inner 
mucous.  Length,  10-13  feet.  Capacity,  18  gallons.  Blood  supply, 
two  colic  arteries.    Nerves,  sympathetic. 

What  is  the  difference  betv^een  the  caecum  of  the  horse  and  that  of 
the  ox? 
In  the  horse,  there  are  four  longitudinal  muscular  bands  which 
are  absent  in  the  ox,  hence  in  the  latter  the  bulgings  seen  in  the 
horse  do  not  appear. 

Describe  the  ileocascal  valve  and  give  its  function. 

It  is  formed  by  the  projection  of  the  ileum  into  the  c£ecum  and 
is  formed  by  a  circular  mucous  fold,  strengthened  externally  by 
muscular  fibres.    Situated  on  the  inferior  face  of  the  caecum. 

Function :  by  acting  as  a  sort  of  check- valve,  probably  aids  the 
onward  movements  of  the  intestinal  contents. 

What  is  the  capacity  of  the  caecum? 
Seven  and  a  half  gallons. 

Describe  the  liver. 

The  liver  is  a  glandular  viscus,  situated  in  the  abdominal  cavity 
to  the  right  of  the  diaphragmatic  region.  Its  average  weight  is 
eleven  pounds.  Flattened  before  and  behind  and  indented  at  its 
borders,  the  organ  is  divided  into  three  principal  lobes  and  presents 
two  surfaces  and  a  border  for  study. 

The  anterior  face,  applied  against  the  diaphragm,  is  channelled 
by  a  deep  fissure  for  the  posterior  cava.  The  posterior  surface  also 
has  a  fissure  for  the  passage  of  the  portal  vein  and  vessels.  In  the 
superior  border  is  a  notch  for  the  oesophagus.  Several  smaller  fis- 
sures are  observed,  one  dividing  the  right  and  left  lobes  and  small 
ones  dividing  the  middle  lobe  into  lobules. 

The  four  lobes  are :  left  (the  largest),  right,  spigelian  or  caudate, 
and  middle. 

The  liver  is  held  in  place  by  five  ligaments,  viz. : 

1.  Anterior  or  coronary,  from  the  fissure  for  the  cava  to  the 
phrenic  centre. 

2.  One  from  the  left  lobe  to  the  sides  of  the  oesophageal  orifice. 

3.  One  from  the  right  lobe  to  the  sublumbar  wall. 

4.  Broad  or  suspensory,  from  the  middle  lobe  to  the  inferior 
abdominal  wall  and  lower  part  of  the  diaphragm. 


84  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

5.  Round,  a  fetal  remnant,  from  the  middle  lobe  to  the  umbilicus. 
The  external  serous  coat  covers  the  true  capsule  (Glisson's)  which 
is  of  fibrous  tissue. 

Hepatic  ducts,  originating  within  the  liver  parenchyma,  unite 
to  form  the  ductus  choledochus,  or  great  bile  duct,  which  empties 
into  the  duodenum. 

Blood  supply :  functional,  portal  vein ;  nutritive,  hepatic  artery. 

Nerve  supply:  sympathetic,  vagus  and  phrenic. 

Name  the  lobes  of  the  liver. 

Three  principal  lobes  are  right,  left  and  middle.  The  right  lobe 
has  a  small  secondary  lobe  attached  to  it,  the  lobus  Spigelii,  or 
caudate  lobe. 

Describe  and  give  the  relations  of  the  pancreas. 

This  organ,  sometimes  called  the  abdominal  salivary  gland,  be- 
cause of  its  resemblance  to  the  salivary  glands  in  structure,  is 
situated  in  the  sublumbar  region,  across  the  aorta  and  post  cava,  in 
front  of  the  kidneys  and  behind  the  liver  and  stomach.  Its  weight 
is  seventeen  ounces.  In  form,  it  is  elongated,  triangular  and  curved 
on  itself.  It  has  two  surfaces,  superior  and  inferior,  two  borders, 
anterior  and  posterior,  and  two  extremities,  a  right  or  head  and 
a  left  or  tail.  The  posterior  border  is  notched  for  the  portal  vein 
to  pass  through. 

Two  ducts,  duct  of  Wirsung,  the  principal,  runs  along  the  an- 
terior border  from  the  left  to  the  right  side  and  opens  into  the 
duodenum  in  common  with  the  bile  duct;  an  accessory  duct  opens 
alone  after  receiving  several  branches. 

Blood  supply:  hepatic  and  great  mesenteric. 

Nerve  supply :  solar  plexus. 

State  the  difference  in  the  relation  of  the  biliary  and  pancreatic  ducts 
in  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  ox,  (c)  the  sheep,  (d)  the  goat, 
and  (e)  the  pig. 

(a)  Open  in  common  into  the  duodenum. 

(b)  Two  separate  openings  into  the  duodenum. 

(c)  Open  in  common  into  the  duodenum. 

(d)  Open  in  common  into  the  duodenum. 

(e)  Two  separate  openings  into  the  duodenum. 

Describe  the  peritoneum  and  give  its  relation. 

The  peritoneum  is  a  serous  membrane  composed  of  a  parietal 
and  a  visceral  layer  which  together  form  a  closed  sac,  so  arranged 
that  the  organs  contained  in  the  abdominal  cavity  are  enveloped  by, 
but  are  external  to,  it. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  85 

In  its  various  folds  and  duplicatures,  it  forms  ligaments,  mesen- 
teries and  omenta  as  follows :  falciform  ligament  from  the  umbilicus 
to  the  middle  lobe  of  the  liver;  the  common  ligament  of  the  liver 
which  surrounds  the  posterior  vena  cava ;  the  cardiac  ligament  that 
envelops  the  termination  of  the  oesophagus ;  the  gastrohepatic  liga- 
ment or  omentum  attaches  the  stomach  to  the  posterior  fissure  of  the 
liver  and  separates  at  the  lesser  curvature  of  the  stomach  to  envelop 
the  same,  joining  again  at  its  greater  curvature.  This  fold  is 
called  the  great  omentum  and  also  the  gastrocolic  omentum,  because 
by  its  posterior  border  it  is  extended  around  the  termination  of  the 
large  colon.  A  reflection  from  the  stomach  to  the  spleen  is  called 
the  gastrosplenie  omentum.  Behind  the  stomach,  there  is  a  small 
opening  in  the  great  omentum,  which  communicates  with  the  peri- 
toneal cavity,  called  the  foramen  of  Winslow.  Posteriorly,  the 
great  omentum  is  continued  as  the  mesentery  proper,  being  reflected 
over  the  small  and  large  intestines,  forming  their  mesenteries,  the 
ligaments  of  the  bladder,  broad  ligaments  of  the  uterus,  and  then 
from  the  rectum  and  front  of  the  bladder  is  reflected  to  the  superior 
and  inferior  abdominal  wall,  forming  the  parietal  layers.  The  in- 
ferior parietal  layer  continues  forward,  descends  into  the  scrotum 
through  the  inguinal  canal  to  envelop  the  testicles,  and  is  continued 
forward  to  form  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the  liver.  The  superior 
parietal  layer  passes  beneath  the  kidney,  forms  the  mesenteries  and 
is  continued  to  the  diaphragm. 

Respiratory  Organs 
Name  the  sinuses  of  the  head. 

The  sinuses  of  the  head  are  arranged  in  pairs,  five  on  each  side  as 
follows:  the  frontal,  supermaxillary,  sphenoidal,  ethmoidal  and 
inferior  maxillary. 

Compare  the  frontal  sinus  of  the  ox  with  that  of  the  horse  as  regards 
position,  structure  and  size. 
In  the  ox,  the  frontal  sinuses  are  prolonged  into  the  horn  cores 
and  into  the  parietal  and  occipital  bones.  They  envelop  the  anterior 
and  superior  part  of  the  cranium  and  form  a  double  wall  to  this 
cavity.  They  are,  therefore,  much  larger  and  situated  more  supe- 
riorly than  in  the  horse.  In  the  horse,  the  sinus  communicates  with 
the  superior  maxillary  sinus  by  a  vast  opening  in  the  thin  bony 
partition,  but  in  the  ox,  no  such  communication  exists. 

Describe  the  larynx. 

The  larynx  is  a  cartilaginous  box,  situated  in  the  intermaxillary 
space  between  the  two  corona  of  the  os  hyoides  and  fixed  to  these 


86  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

appendages  by  one  of  its  constituent  pieces,  the  thyroid  cartilage. 
Its  anterior  opening  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  pharynx,  its  posterior 
is  continuous  with  the  trachea. 

In  structure,  it  is  comprised  of  five  cartilages,  viz.,  three  single, 
cricoid,  thyroid  and  epiglottis,  and  one  pair,  the  arytenoids.  The 
muscles  which  either  move  the  whole  organ  or  its  cartilages  upon 
one  another  are:  three  extrinsic,  the  sternothyroideus,  hyothy- 
roideus  and  the  hyo-epiglottideus;  five  intrinsic,  cricothyroid,  pos- 
terior crico-arytenoideus,  lateral  crico-arytenoid,  thyro-arytenoid 
and  arytenoideus.  All  of  these  muscles  are  pairs,  except  the  hyo- 
epiglottideus  and  arytenoideus. 

Internally,  the  larynx  is  lined  with  mucous  membrane  and  is 
marked  on  each  side  by  the  elastic  structure  known  as  the  vocal 
cords. 

Blood  supply:  laryngeal  arteries. 

Nerve  supply:  superior  and  inferior  laryngeal. 

Function :    an  air  passage  and  organ  of  phonation. 

Name  the  cartilages  of  the  larynx. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Describe  the  guttural  pouch  and  give  its  function. 

Two  in  number,  one  on  each  side,  the  guttural  pouches  are  elon- 
gated cavities,  communicating  with  the  pharynx  and  lying  on  its 
sides.  In  reality,  a  dilatation  of  the  eustachian  tube,  these  two 
pouches  lie  against  each  other  in  the  median  plane ;  externally,  they 
are  related  to  the  carotid  artery  and  parotid  gland.  Before  and 
behind,  they  extend  from  the  anterior  part  of  the  pharynx  to  the 
inferior  face  of  the  atlas.  Capacity,  about  three-quarters  of  a  pint. 
Function :  probably  connected  with  hearing  and  phonation  in  some 
way. 

Describe  the  trachea  and  give  its  relations. 

The  trachea  is  a  long,  flexible,  elastic,  cylindrical  tube,  composed 
of  a  series  of  about  fifty  incomplete  cartilaginous  rings  that  succeed 
the  cricoid  cartilage  of  the  larynx  and  terminate  above  the  base  of 
the  heart  by  bifurcating  into  the  two  bronchi.  The  rings  are  united 
by  fibrous  tissue. 

Relations :  In  its  cervical  portion,  surrounded  by  muscles  of  this 
region — sternohyoid  and  sternothyroid,  in  front ;  the  sternomaxil- 
laris  muscles  are  situated  in  front  in  the  inferior  part  but  on  the 
sides  near  their  termination;  the  subscapulohyoideii  are  placed 
above  and  in  the  middle  of  the  lateral  parts;  the  scaleni  are  below 
and  at  the  sides ;  the  longus  colli,  behind.    The  oesophagus  descends 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  87 

at  first  in  the  middle  of  the  posterior  face,  then  to  the  left  side 
of  the  trachea.  The  carotid  arteries,  the  pneumogastric,  great  sym- 
pathetic and  recurrent  nerves  pass  along  both  sides  of  the  tube. 

In  the  thoracic  portion,  the  trachea  is  related  superiorly  to  the 
longus  colli  muscle  and  the  oesophagus ;  below  to  the  brachial  vessels, 
the  anterior  aorta,  anterior  vena  cava,  the  cardiac  and  recurrent 
nerves,  and  to  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart ;  laterally  it  is  in  contact 
with  the  inferior  cervical  ganglia  of  the  great  sympathetic,  the 
vertebral  vessels  and  the  two  layers  of  the  anterior  mediastinum, 
vena  azygos,  aorta  and  thoracic  duct. 

Describe  the  thoracic  cavity.  Name  the  organs  that  are  contained  in 
this  cavity. 

The  thoracic  cavity  is  a  bony  cage,  representing  a  hollow  cone 
placed  horizontally,  depressed  on  its  sides,  apex  forward  and  base 
formed  by  the  diaphragm,  posteriorly. 

Boundaries :  in  front,  the  first  ribs  and  longus  colli  muscle ;  be- 
hind, the  diaphragm ;  superiorly,  the  vertebrae,  ribs  and  longus  colli 
muscle;  inferiorly,  the  sternum,  costal  cartilages  and  the  triangu- 
laris sterni  muscle ;  laterally,  the  ribs  and  deep  intercostal  muscles. 
Its  internal  face  is  covered  with  a  serous  membrane,  the  pleura. 

It  contains  the  following  organs :  heart  and  great  vessels,  lungs, 
trachea,  oesophagus,  thoracic  duct  and  lymphatic  glands. 

Function:  Eeceptacle  for  the  contained  organs;  its  movements 
are  of  primary  importance  in  the  act  of  respiration. 

Compare  the  thoracic  cavity  of  the  horse  with  that  of  the  ox. 

In  the  ox,  the  thorax  is  not  so  long,  particularly  in  its  superior 
part,  as  in  the  horse,  because  the  diaphragm  is  situated  less  obliquely 
and  its  attachment  to  the  ribs  is  more  anterior.  Its  total  capacity 
is  less  than  in  the  horse. 

Give  the  number  of  pulmonary  lobes  in  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  ox, 
(c)  the  sheep,  (d)  the  pig,  (e)  the  dog. 

(a)   5;  (b)  6;  (c)  6;  (d)  6;  (e)  7. 

Describe  the  lungs  of  the  horse. 

The  lungs,  the  essential  organs  of  respiration,  are  situated  in  the 
thoracic  cavity,  surrounding  the  heart,  and  enveloped  by  a  serous 
membrane,  the  pleura. 

Divided  into  two  lateral  halves,  the  lungs  are  considered  as  two 
parts,  right  and  left,  which,  in  contour,  correspond  to  the  thoracic 
cavity  which  they  practically  fill.  Each  half  is  cone-shaped  and 
has:  an  external  face  lying  against  the  ribs;  an  internal  face, 
forming  the  side  of  the  mediastinum  which  presents  an  excavation 


88  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

in  which  the  heart  is  lodged,  and  behind  this  is  the  root  of  the  lung, 
formed  by  the  bronchi,  blood-vessels  and  nerves  entering  the  struc- 
ture, also  a  fold  of  the  pleura,  lig amentum  latum  pidmonalis,  which 
is  attached  to  the  mediastinum  and  posterior  face  of  the  diaphragm ; 
a  base  or  diaphragmatic  face,  concave  and  in  contact  with  the  dia- 
phragm, showing  a  notch  for  the  posterior  vena  cava;  an  apex  or 
summit,  situated  behind  the  first  rib,  forms  the  anterior  lobe;  a 
superior  border,  thick  and  convex,  rests  in  the  vertebrocostal  chan- 
nel or  concavity ;  an  inferior,  shorter  and  thinner,  is  notched  deeply 
for  the  heart. 

The  right  lung  has  three  lobes,  an  anterior,  middle  and  posterior ; 
the  left,  two,  an  anterior  and  posterior. 

The  lung  substance  is  pink-colored,  soft,  spongy  and  elastic  tis- 
sue; it  is  divided  into  lobules  which  are  further  subdivided  into 
alveoli  and  air-cells  that  communicate  with  bronchioles,  the  sub- 
divisions of  bronchii. 

Blood  supply:  nutrient,  bronchial  arteries;  functional,  pul- 
monary arteries.     Nerve  supply:  pneumogastric  and  sympathetic. 

Describe  the  different  reflections  of  the  pleura  and  state  the  different 
structures  to  which  they  are  respectively  applied. 

1.  Costal  pleura  is  applied  to  the  internal  face  of  the  ribs  and 
internal  intercostal  muscles. 

2.  Diaphragmatic  pleura,  a  continuation  of  the  costal,  is  adher- 
ent to  the  diaphragm. 

3.  Mediastinal  pleura  separates  the  two  lateral  halves  of  the 
lungs.  It  is  applied  against  the  internal  face  of  each  half  and  com- 
prises between  its  two  layers  the  h^eart.  The  portion  in  front  of  the 
heart  is  called  the  anterior  mediastinum,  and  that  behind,  the  pos- 
terior mediastinum. 

The  anterior  mediastinum  contains  the  trachea,  oesophagus,  an- 
terior aorta  and  its  divisions,  anterior  vena  cava,  thoracic  duct,  and 
the  cardiac,  pneumogastric,  recurrent  and  phrenic  nerves.  In  the 
foetus  and  very  young  animals,  it  also  contains  the  thymus  glands. 

The  posterior  mediastinum  is  traversed  by  the  posterior  aorta, 
vena  azygos,  thoracic  duct,  oesophagus  and  nerves. 

4.  Pulmonary  or  visceral  pleura,  a  continuation  of  the  medias- 
tinal, completely  envelops  the  lung-tissue  proper. 

Give  the  relative  thickness  of  the  mediastinum  in  horses  and  in  cattle, 
and  state  how  this  affects  conditions  in  unilateral  pleurisy. 
In  its  inferior  part,  the  posterior  mediastinum  of  the  horse  is 
very  thin  and  perforated  by  small  openings ;  whereas,  in  cattle,  it  is 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  89 

not  open  but  is  thick  and  solid  there  as  elsewhere.  A  ease  of  unilat- 
eral pleurisy  in  the  horse  tends  to  become  bilateral  because  the 
effusion,  and  hence  the  infection,  can  readily  pass  from  one  side  to 
the  other.  In  cattle,  localization  of  the  disease  in  one  side  is 
possible. 

Urinary  Organs 
Describe  the  kidney. 

The  kidneys,  two  in  number,  are  situated  in  the  right  and  left 
sublumbar  region,  against  the  psoas  muscles,  usually  imbedded  in 
fat,  and  supported  beneath  by  the  peritoneum.  The  right  kidney 
is  heart-shaped  and  more  anterior  than  the  left,  which  is  bean- 
shaped.  Each  kidney  has  a  superior  and  inferior  flattened  surface, 
an  external  convex  border  and  an  internal  concave  one  which  is 
deeply  notched,  the  hilum.  In  the  hilum,  the  blood-vessels,  nerves 
and  beginning  of  the  ureter  are  lodged.  Inside,  at  the  hilum,  is  a 
cavity,  the  pelvis,  into  which  the  uriniferous  tubules  empty  and 
which  is  the  beginning  of  the  ureter. 

The  kidney  is  encapsulated  by  a  fibrous  coat  which  sends  pro- 
longations into  its  substance.  The  tissue  proper  of  the  kidney  is 
divided  into  an  external  or  cortical  layer  and  an  internal  or  medul- 
lary layer.  The  cortical  layer  contains  the  malpighian  corpuscles 
and  the  medullary  layer  contains  the  uriniferous  tubules. 

Blood  supply:  renal  artery. 

Nerve  supply:  branches  from  the  solar  plexus. 

Function :  secretion  of  urine. 

Compare  the  kidney  of  the  horse  with  that  of  the  ox. 

In  the  ox,  the  kidneys  are  more  elongated  from  before  to  behind, 
and  are  divided  into  15  to  20  lobules,  the  structures  of  which  are 
comported  like  so  many  separate  kidneys. 

Describe  the  ureters. 

The  ureters,  two  in  number,  are  membranous  canals,  beginning 
at  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney  and  running  backward  and  downward  to 
the  upper  face  of  the  bladder,  which  they  enter  in  an  oblique  direc- 
tion. Size,  about  14  inch  in  diameter.  Structure  consists  of  an 
external  fibrous  coat,  a  middle  muscular  and  an  internal  mucous. 

Function :  to  convey  urine  from  the  kidneys  to  the  bladder. 

Describe  the  urinary  bladder. 

The  bladder  is  a  muscular  bag,  situated  in  the  inferior  part  of 
the  pelvic  cavity,  and  has  three  openings,  viz.,  the  openings  of  the 
two  ureters  and  the  beginning  of  the  urethra.     Its  structure  is 


90  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

principally  muscular  tissue  and  is  lined  with  mucous  membrane 
made  up  of  stratified  epithelium.  Its  anterior  half  is  covered  with 
peritoneum.  Related  above  to  the  uterus  and  vagina  in  the  female, 
and  to  the  seminal  vesicles  and  rectum  in  the  male. 

Blood  supply:  internal  pudic  and  umbilical  arteries. 

Nerve  supply :  pelvic  plexus. 

Function:  receptacle  for  urine  until  conditions  are  satisfactory 
for  its  expulsion. 

Compare  the  urethra  of  the  horse  with  that  of  the  ox. 

In  the  ox,  the  urethra  conforms  with  the  bend  of  the  penis  in 
front  of  the  pubis,  by  making  an  S-shaped  curve.  Its  diameter 
diminishes  from  its  commencement  to  its  termination.  The  latter 
is  not  prolonged  by  an  urethral  tube,  as  in  the  horse.  Near  the 
ischial  arch,  the  urethra  of  the  ox  shows  a  valve  which  covers  a 
cul-de-sac  about  one  inch  deep.  This  is  not  present  in  the  horse. 
The  walls  of  the  urethra  in  the  ox  are  thicker  than  in  the  horse 
and  are  provided  with  a  sphincter  muscle  and  erectile  tissue. 

What  is  the  length  of  the  urethra  in  the  mare? 
It  is  very  short,  less  than  one  inch. 

Sexual  Organs 

Describe  the  ovaries  of  the  mare  and  state  how  they  differ  from  those 
of  the  cow. 

The  ovaries,  two  in  number,  situated  in  the  right  and  left  sub- 
lumbar  regions,  are  small,  ovoid  bodies  with  a  deep  notch  or  hilus  on 
their  upper  surface,  which  gives  attachment  to  the  pavilion  of  the 
oviduct.  Each  ovary  floats  at  the  anterior  border  of  the  broad  liga- 
ment and  is  attached  to  the  uterus  by  vessels  and  the  utero-ovarian 
ligament.  Externally,  they  are  covered  by  serous  membrane,  under- 
neath which  is  the  tunica  albuginea,  a  fibrous  covering. 

In  the  cow,  the  ovaries  are  relatively  much  smaller  than  in  tlio 
mare,  but  in  form  and  structure  are  the  same. 

Describe  the  uterus  of  the  mare.  Give  distinctive  features  of  the 
uterus  of  the  cow  and  bitch. 
The  uterus  of  the  mare  is  a  hollow,  muscular  sac,  situated  in  the 
abdominal  cavity  in  the  sublumbar  region.  Its  posterior  extremity 
extends  to  or  within  the  anterior  opening  of  the  pelvic  cavity. 
It  is  comprised  of  a  body,  constituting  the  greater  bulk,  which  is 
continued  anteriorly  by  a  slight  bifurcation  into  the  two  cornua. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  91 

Posteriorly,  it  is  separated  from  the  vagiua  by  a  constriction,  the 
cervix  or  neck. 

Relations:  Above,  to  the  rectum;  below,  with  the  bladder;  an- 
teriorly and  laterally  with  the  intestines ;  behind,  with  the  vagina. 

Attachments:  Two  broad  ligaments,  descending  from  the  sub- 
lumbar  region  to  the  sides  of  the  uterus  and  cornua ;  two  rudimen- 
tary, round  ligaments,  from  the  sides  of  the  uterus  to  the  upper 
inguinal  ring. 

Openings :  One  small  opening  in  each  cornua,  from  the  oviducts ; 
OS  uteri,  opening  into  the  vagina. 

Structure:  Outer  serous  coat,  middle  muscular,  and  inner 
mucous. 

Blood  supply :  Uterine  and  utero-ovarian  vessels. 

Nerve  supply:  Mesenteric  and  pelvic  plexuses. 

Function :  The  sac  in  which  the  embryo  is  developed. 

In  the  cow,  the  concave  curvature  of  the  cornua  looks  down- 
ward, instead  of  upward,  as  in  the  mare.  The  body  is  shorter  and 
narrower  and  the  cornua  are  thinner  and  more  tapering  than  in  the 
mare.  The  interior  is  studded  with  numerous  tubercles,  cotyledons. 
The  cervix  is  longer  and  the  muscular  coat  thicker. 

In  the  bitch,  the  body  of  the  uterus  is  short  and  the  cornua  are 
very  long  and  folded,  floating  amongst  the  intestines.  Its  cervix 
projects  into  the  vagina  and  is  even  more  voluminous  than  the  body. 

Mention  the  ligaments  of  the  uterus. 

Broad  ligament,  round  ligament,  and  utero-ovarian  ligament. 

Describe  the  vagina. 

The  vagina  is  a  long,  membranous  canal,  situated  in  the  pelvic 
cavity,  succeeding  the  uterus  and  terminating  in  the  vulva.  It  is 
made  up  of  an  inner  mucous  coat,  a  middle  muscular,  and  its  an- 
terior part  is  covered  with  peritoneum.  It  is  related  above  with  the 
rectum;  laterally,  with  the  ureters  and  connective  tissue;  below 
with  the  bladder. 

Blood  supply :  Internal  pudic  artery. 

Nerve  supply :  Pelvic  plexus. 

Function :  Copulation  and  passage  of  the  foetus. 

Describe  the  mammary  gland  of  the  cow. 

The  mammary  gland  of  the  cow,  situated  in  the  inguinal  region, 
is  made  up  of  two  lateral  halves,  each  of  which  is  composed  of  two 
distinct  glands.     The  whole  mass  is  enclosed  by  a  fibrous  capsule. 


92  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

In  the  centre  of  each  quarter  is  a  prolongation,  the  teat  or  nipple, 
which  is  pierced  at  its  extremity  by  a  small  orifice,  the  opening  of 
the  teat  duct.  The  teat  duct  or  canal  traverses  the  teat  and  opens 
superiorly  into  the  galactophorus  sinus  or  reservoir  at  the  base 
of  the  teat. 

Externally,  the  organ  is  covered  with  skin  which,  together  with 
ligamentous,  elastic  bands  attached  to  the  abdominal  tunic,  fixes  it 
in  position.  Internally,  the  organ  is  made  up  of  glandular,  adipose 
and  connective  tissue. 

Blood  supply:  External  pudic. 

Nerve  supply :  First  lumbar  pair. 

Describe  the  mammary  glands  of  the  bitch. 

The  mammary  glands  of  the  bitch  are  ten  in  number,  five  on  each 
side,  situated  along  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body  from  the  inguinal 
to  the  axillary  region.    Each  teat  has  from  eight  to  ten  orifices. 

Describe  the  genital  organs  of  the  cow. 

The  genital  organs  of  the  cow  include  the  ovaries,  Fallopian  tubes, 
uterus,  vagina  and  mammary  gland.  For  description  of  same,  see 
preceding  questions. 

Name  the  coverings  of  the  testicles. 

From  without,  inward :  scrotum,  dartos,  cremaster,  fibrous  timie 
and  tunica  vaginalis. 

Of  what  structures  is  the  spermatic  cord  composed  ? 

Vas  deferens,  spermatic  artery,  spermatic  vein,  nerves  of  sym- 
pathetic origin,  cremaster  muscle  and  peritoneum. 

Define  the  following:  epididymis,  vas  deferens,  globus  major,  vesiculae 
seminales,  prostate  gland,  clitoris  and  vulva. 

Epididymis  is  an  elongated  duct,  placed  against  the  upper  bor- 
der and  outside  of  the  testicle,  arising  from  the  vas  efferentia  and 
also  called  the  head  of  the  epididymis. 

Vas  deferens  is  an  elongated  canal,  beginning  at  the  epididymis 
and  ending  at  the  seminal  vesicles,  through  which  spermatozoa  pass. 

Globus  major  is  the  enlarged  anterior  part  of  the  epididymis; 
also  called  the  head  of  the  epididymis. 

Vesiculos  seminales  are  two  elongated  pouches  in  which  the  semen 
is  stored,  situated  above  the  neck  of  the  bladder. 

The  prostate  gland  is  situated  at  the  commencement  of  the 
urethra  around  the  neck  of  the  bladder.  It  secretes  a  viscid  fluid, 
which  it  pours  forth  into  the  urethra  through  several  orifices. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  93 

The  clitoris  is  a  small  body,  two  to  three  inches  long,  situated 
in  the  inferior  commissure  of  the  vulva.  It  is  composed  of  erectile 
tissue. 

The  vulva  is  the  slit-like  orifice  of  the  female  genitalia  and  is 
situated  in  the  perineal  region  below  the  anus. 

Organs  of  Special  Sense 
Describe  the  eyeball. 

The  eyeball,  which  lies  in  the  fat  of  the  orbit,  is  a  spherical- 
shaped  shell,  consisting  of  three  tunics  surrounding  the  humors. 
It  is  slightly  bulged  in  front  (the  cornea),  making  the  antero- 
posterior, the  longest  diameter. 

The  tunics  of  the  eye  are,  outer  sclerotic  and  cornea,  middle 
choroid  and  iris,  and  inner  retina. 

The  sclerotic  is  a  white,  dense  membrane,  forming  about  four- 
fifths  of  the  external  shell,  into  which  the  muscles  are  inserted.  It 
is  continued  in  front  as  the  cornea,  a  transparent  membrane  which 
constitutes  the  remaining  one-fifth  of  the  outer  tunic.  Posteriorly, 
the  sclera  has  an  opening  for  the  passage  of  the  optic  and  ciliary 
nerves  and  the  central  artery. 

The  choroid,  the  middle  layer,  is  a  thin,  brownish,  vascular 
membrane.  It  is  continued  anteriorly  as  the  iris,  a  circular  curtain 
with  a  central  opening,  the  pupil.  This  curtain  is  governed  by  the 
ciliary  muscle  which  unites  the  iris  to  the  sclera. 

The  retina,  or  internal  layer,  is  the  thinnest  and  most  delicate. 
It  is  the  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve  and  adheres  closely  to  the 
choroid,  ending  anteriorly  in  a  number  of  folds,  the  zone  of  Zinn. 
Although  very  thin,  the  retina  is  composed  of  connective  tissue  and 
nerve  elements,  arranged  in  nine  or  ten  superposed  layers. 

The  crystalline  lens  is  a  double  convex  lens  of  concentric  layers, 
with  an  external  capsule.  It  is  situated  in  the  anterior  one-third  of 
the  eye,  behind  the  pupil.  Back  of  the  lens,  filling  the  space  bounded 
by  the  retina,  is  a  gelatinous  fluid,  the  vitreous  humor,  and  anterior 
to  the  lens  is  the  aqueous  humor,  which  entirely  fills  the  anterior 
and  posterior  chamber,  the  space  between  the  cornea,  pupil  and  iris. 

The  eyeball  is  freely  movable  in  various  directions,  the  move- 
ments being  controlled  by  seven  muscles :  five  recti  and  two  oblique, 
all  of  which  attach  to  the  sclera. 

Describe  the  cornea. 

The  cornea  is  a  transparent  membrane  which  constitutes  the 
anterior  one-fifth  of  the  outer  covering  of  the  eyeball.  It  is  shaped 
like  a  watch  glass  with  its  convexity  forward,  and  is  composed  of 


04  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

three  layers.  The  anterior  layer  is  epithelial  in  character  and  is  a 
continuation  of  the  conjunctiva.  The  middle  is  composed  of  con- 
nective tissue  and  the  internal  layer,  elastic  in  structure,  is  called 
Descemet's  membrane. 

Name  the  tunics  of  the  eyeball.     Describe  one. 

See  answer  to  preceding  questions. 

Describe  the  membrana  nictitans  and  give  its  use. 

The  membrana  nictitans,  also  called  the  third  eyelid,  is  placed  at 
the  greater  angle  of  the  eye,  whence  it  extends  over  the  eyeball  to 
remove  foreign  bodies  from  the  cornea.  It  is  made  up  of  fibro- 
cartilage,  triangular  in  shape,  thick  anteriorly  and  thick  at  its  base, 
where  it  is  continued  by  an  adipose  cushion  which  is  insinuated  be- 
tween the  muscles  of  the  eye.  It  moves,  almost  instantaneously  and 
in  a  mechanical  manner,  over  the  eye,  whenever  the  eyeball  is 
retracted  in  the  orbit. 

Describe  the  lachrymal  apparatus  of  the  horse  and  compare  it  with  that 
of  the  ox. 

The  lachrymal  apparatus  consists  of  the  lachrymal  gland,  puncta 
lachrymalia,  lachrymal  sac  and  lachrymal  canal. 

The  lachrymal  gland  is  conglomerate,  situated  between  the  orbi- 
tal process  and  the  upper  part  of  the  eyeball.  It  secretes  the  tears 
which  empty  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  upper  lid.  After  lubri- 
cating the  cornea  and  conjunctiva,  the  excess  of  tears  enter  the 
puncta  lachrymalia,  two  small  canals  in  the  upper  and  lower  lids, 
which  carry  the  tears  into  the  lachrymal  sac,  a  small  reservoir, 
the  beginning  of  the  lachrymal  canal.  The  latter  runs  down  in  the 
lachrymal  bone  as  a  membranous  canal,  ending  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  nostril. 

In  the  ox,  the  lachrymal  gland  is  much  more  voluminous  than 
in  the  horse ;  it  has  two  large  and  several  small  ducts,  and  the  nasal 
opening  is  situated  higher  in  the  nostril  than  in  the  hoKse. 

Describe  the  humors  of  the  eye. 

The  vitreous  humor  occupies  all  the  cavity  of  the  eye,  behind  the 
lens,  surrounded  by  the  retina.  It  is  a  colorless,  transparent,  jelly- 
like tissue  which  concurs  in  refracting  the  rays  of  light  and  at  the 
same  time  acts  as  a  supporting  substance  by  maintaining  the 
rotundity  of  the  eyeball. 

The  aqueous  humor  is  more  fluid  than  the  vitreous,  containing 
only  2  per  cent,  solids.  It  occupies  the  anterior  and  posterior  cham- 
ber of  the  eye  in  front  of  the  lens  and  is  secreted  by  Descemet's 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWEES  95' 

membrane.    It  serves  to  maintain  the  convexity  of  the  cornea  and 
assists  in  refracting  the  rays  of  light. 

Describe  the  Eustachian  tube  and  state  its  function. 

The  Eustachian  tube  is  a  fibrocartilaginous  canal,  about  four 
inches  long,  extending  from  the  middle  ear  to  the  pharynx.  Its 
upper  orifice  is  narrow,  but  the  inferior  is  widened  by  a  great  slit, 
the  borders  of  which  are  cartilaginous  in  structure.  Its  inferior 
border  is  cleft,  allowing  the  mucous  membrane  to  escape  in  the  form 
of  a  large  sac,  known  as  the  guttural  pouch.  It  is  bordered  by  the 
stylopharyngeus  muscle. 

Function :  maintains  the  equilibrium  of  air  within  the  cavity  of 
the  tympanum. 

Describe  the  membrana  tympani. 

The  membrani  tympani,  or  ear-drum,  is  a  thin  membrane  which 
separates  the  middle  ear  from  the  auditory  canal ;  oval  in  shape  and 
is  attached  by  its  circumference  to  a  bony  frame,  the  tympanitic 
circle.  Its  inner  face  is  slightly  convex  and  is  adherent  to  the 
handle  of  the  malleus.  Although  very  thin,  it  consists  of  three 
layers,  a  middle  fibrous  and  muscular,  an  external  of  skin,  and  an 
internal  of  mucous  membrane. 

The  function  of  this  drum-like  membrane  is  to  receive  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  sound  waves  and  transmit  them  to  the  internal  ear. 

Skin,  Hair  and  Hoof 

Name  the  appendages  of  the  skin. 

Hair,  sweat-glands,  sebaceous  glands  and  horny  parts  (chest- 
nut, ergot  and  hoof  and,  in  ruminants,  horns). 

Describe  the  different  structures  that  make  up  the  elastic  cushion  of 
the  heel. 

These  consist  of  two  fibrocartilages  and  the  plantar  cushion. 

The  cartilages,  two  in  number,  are  flattened  plates,  shaped  like 
an  oblique-angled  parallelogram.  They  are  attached  in  front  to 
the  anterior  lateral  ligament,  behind  to  the  basilar  and  retrossal 
processes  and  plantar  cushion ;  they  have  a  thin  upper  border  and 
a  thick  lower.  The  upper  border  is  notched  for  the  passage  of 
vessels  and  nerves. 

The  plantar  cushion  is  a  wedge-shaped  mass,  situated  between 
the  lateral  cartilages,  the  perforans  tendon  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
hoof.  Superiorly,  it  lies  against  the  expansion  of  the  perforans 
tendon  and  is  attached  by  ligamentous  bands  to  the  ergot,  meta- 
carpus and  OS  pedis.    Inferiorly,  it  is  covered  by  the  keratogenous 


96  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

membrane  and  presents  at  its  middle  the  pyramidal  body  which 
corresponds  to  the  frog.  Its  base  terminates  in  two  lateral  masses, 
the  bulbs  of  the  plantar  cushion.  Its  summit  attaches  to  the  plantar 
surface  of  the  os  pedis  and  on  each  side  it  is  attached  to  the  lateral 
cartilages.  In  structure,  it  is  composed  of  fibrous,  elastic  and  adi- 
pose tissue,  and  contains  vessels  and  nerves. 

Describe  the  coronary  cushion. 

The  coronary  cushion  is  the  matrix  of  the  wall  of  the  hoof.  It 
is  lodged  in  a  cavity  at  the  upper  border  of  this  horny  ease.  Its 
inferior  border  is  separated  from  the  upper  extremity  of  the  laminae 
by  a  white  ring.  Its  superior  border  is  limited  by  the  perioplic  ring. 
The  extremities  are  narrow  and  end  in  the  velvety  tissue  of  the 
plantar  cushion.  In  structure  it  is  a  modified  skin  made  up  of  a 
fibrous  framework. 

What  is  the  keratogenous  membrane  ? 

This  is  the  secreting  structure  of  the  horny  foot.  It  envelops 
the  extremity  of  the  digit  and  is  covered  by  the  hoof.  It  consists 
of  the  coronary  cushion  (see  preceding  question),  velvety  and  1am- 
inal  tissue.  The  velvety  tissue  covers  the  plantar  surface  of  the  os 
pedis  and  plantar  cushion.  The  laminal  tissue  consists  of  500  to  600 
leaves,  on  the  front  and  sides  of  the  os  pedis,  which  dovetail  with  the 
leaves  on  the  inside  of  the  hoof  wall. 

Describe  minutely  the  mode  of  connection  of  the  hoof  wall  with  the 
pedal  bone  and  state  how  the  weight  of  the  animal  is  sup- 
ported by  the  hoof. 
The  OS  pedis  is  covered  on  the  front  and  side  by  the  laminal  tissue 
(see  preceding  question) .    This  tissue  consists  of  five  to  six  hundred 
parallel  leaves,  running  from  above,  downward.    On  the  inner  side 
of  the  hoof  wall,  there  are  analogous  leaves,  keraphyllous  tissue, 
which  dovetail  with  these. 

The  weight  of  the  body  is  supported  by  the  hoof  wall  and  bars 
through  the  intimate  union  of  the  horny  and  sensitive  laminrB.  The 
sole  of  the  foot  is  slightly  convex  upward,  thus  making  an  arch-like 
support.  The  frog,  through  the  medium  of  the  plantar  cushion  and 
lateral  cartilages,  receives  a  share  of  the  weighty  and  the  wall  the 
balance. 

Ductless  Glands 

Mention  the  ductless  glands  and  state  where  they  are  located. 
Spleen,  adrenals,  pituitary  gland,  thyroid  and  thymus. 
The  adrenals,  two  in  number,  lie  on  the  under  and  inner  side  of 
the  kidneys,  in  front  of  the  hilus. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  97 

The  spleen  is  situated  in  the  diaphragmatic  and  left  hypochon- 
driac regions,  and  suspended  from  the  sublumbar. 

The  pituitary  gland  is  situated  near  the  third  ventricle  of  the 
brain,  being  attached  to  the  interpeduncular  fissure  by  the  pituitary 
stem. 

The  thyroid  gland  lies  in  the  neck  beside  the  first  two  tracheal 
rings. 

The  thjnnus  lies  under  the  lower  face  of  the  trachea,  partly  with- 
out and  partly  within  the  chest  in  the  foetus  and  very  young  animals. 

Describe  the  spleen* 

The  spleen  is  a  falciform-shaped  organ,  situated  in  the  dia- 
phragmatic and  left  hyponchondriac  region.  It  has  an  external 
convex  and  an  internal  concave  face ;  a  convex  posterior  border  and 
a  concave  and  sharp  anterior  border.  The  superior  extremity,  the 
base,  is  broad,  and  the  inferior  extremity  is  pointed.  It  is  held  in 
position  by  a  suspensory  ligament  from  the  sublumbar  region  and 
kidney  to  its  base,  and  the  gastrosplenic  omentum  which  envelops 
the  whole  organ. 

It  is  covered  with  peritoneum  and  has  a  thick,  strong,  fibrous 
coat  which  sends  prolongations,  or  trabeculse,  into  the  interior.  The 
tissue  of  the  spleen  is  made  up  of  pulp,  a  reddish  material,  com- 
posed of  pigment,  broken-down  corpuscles  and  Malpighian  cor- 
puscles, small  rounded  bodies  of  lymphoid  structure  which  are 
covered  by  the  outer  tunic  of  the  small  arteries. 

Blood  supply :  Splenic  artery. 

Nerve  supply :  Solar  plexus. 

State  the  difference  between  the  spleen  of  the  horse  and  that  of  the  ox. 

(See  answer  to  preceding  question.) 

In  the  ox,  the  spleen  is  not  supported  by  the  great  omentum, 
but  adheres  to  the  left  side  of  the  rumen  and  diaphragm.  It  is  not 
falciform,  and  the  breadth  is  the  same  throughout  its  extent. 

Apart  from  the  disease  microbe,  what  anatomic  arrangement  favors  the 

sanguineous  engorgement  of  the  spleen  in  anthrax  and 

Texas  fever  of  animals  and  in  malaria  in  man? 

The  capsule,  the  sheaths  of  the  vessels  and  the  trabeculae  consist 

of  a  dense  mesh  of  white  and  yellow  elastic  fibrous  tissue  which  gives 

it  a  great  amount  of  elasticity. 

Describe  the  thyroid  gland. 

The  thyroid  gland  lies  on  the  sides  of  the  first  two  tracheal  rings. 
It  is  composed  of  two  lateral  lobes  and  a  median  portion,  the  isthmus. 
7 


98  VETEEINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

Its  jBbrous  coat  sends  prolongations  into  its  structure,  as  in  the 
spleen.  Its  parenchyma  is  divided  into  lobules  which  contain  vesi- 
cles, lined  with  polygonal  cells,  and  contains  albuminous  matter. 
It  is  a  very  vascular  organ,  receiving  its  supply  from  the  thyro- 
laryngeal  branch  of  the  carotid  artery.  Nerve  supply  from  the 
first  and  second  cervical  and  sympathetic. 

Vv^hat  is  the  thymus  gland  ?     Where  is  it  found  ? 

It  is  a  transitory  organ  which  is  found  only  in  the  foetus  and 
very  young  animals,  and  disappears  a  few  months  after  birth.  In 
structure,  it  closely  resembles  the  thyroid  gland.  It  is  situated 
beneath  the  trachea,  partly  without  and  partly  within  the  thoracic 
cavity. 

What  are  the  adrenals?    Give  location. 

The  adrenals,  or  suprarenals,  are  two  small  bodies  which  resem- 
ble somewhat  the  kidney  in  structure.  They  are  applied  to  the  lower 
face  of  the  kidney  in  front  of  the  hilus  and  close  to  their  inner 
border.    They  have  no  excretory  duct  but  have  an  internal  secretion. 

Topographical  Anatomy 

What  structures  are  severed  in  tracheotomy? 

The  skin,  connective  tissue,  the  cervical  panniculus  and  sterno- 
thyrohyoideus  muscles  and  the  trachea. 

State  the  difference  between  the  foramen  ovale  and   the  foramen 
magnum. 
The  foramen  ovale  is  the  opening  between  the  auricles  of  the 
heart,  seen  in  the  foetus. 

The  foramen  magnum  is  the  large  orifice  that  passes  through  the 
occipital  bone  and  establishes  a  communication  between  the  cranial 
cavity  and  the  spinal  canal. 

Name  the  structures  that  would  be  severed  in  amputating  the  hind 
limb  just  below  the  tarsus. 
Skin,  subcutaneous  fascia,  flexor  pedis  perforans  and  flexor  pedis 
perforatus  tendons,  the  tendon  of  the  oblique  flexor  of  the  meta- 
tarsus, the  anterior  extensor  of  the  phalanges,  the  lateral  extensor 
of  the  phalanges,  the  sheaths  of  these  tendons,  the  plantar  arteries, 
the  perforating  pedal  artery,  the  internal  and  external  plantar 
interosseous  arteries,  the  accompanying  veins  of  these  arteries, 
two  rudimentary  and  one  principal  metatarsal  bones. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  99 

Name  the  regions  into  which  the  abdominal  cavity  is  divided  for  study. 

Siiblumbar,  right  and  left  lumbar,  suprasternal,  umbilical,  pre- 
pubie,  right  and  left  inguinal,  hypochondriac,  flank,  diaphragmatic 
and  pelvic  regions. 

At  what  point  in  the  head  would  you  trephine  to  open  (a)  the  frontal 
sinus,  (b)  the  lower  maxillary  sinus  ? 

(a)  At  the  point  of  intersection  of  a  line  connecting  the  superior 
borders  of  the  orbital  cavities  and  one  parallel  to,  but  about  one-half 
inch  from,  the  median  line. 

(b)  Just  above  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  zygomatic  ridge. 

Through  what  tissues  do  you  cut  in  the  operation  of  median  neurec- 
tomy? 
Skin,  sterno-aponeuroticus  muscle  and  antibrachial  fascia. 

Histological  Anatomy 

Describe  (a)  arteries,  (b)  veins,  (c)  nerves. 

(a)  The  arteries  are  cylindrical  tubes  which  carry  the  blood  from 
the  heart  to  the  various  organs  of  the  body.  All  arteries  carry  pure 
blood  with  one  exception,  the  pulmonary  artery.  They  originate  at 
the  heart  by  two  great  trunks  which  divide  and  subdivide  until  their 
size  is  almost  imperceptible  (capillaries). 

Arteries  are  more  or  less  rigid  and  elastic  and  have  three  tunics, 
viz.,  an  external  fibrous  (tunica  adventitia),  a  middle  (tunica 
media),  and  an  internal  (tunica  intima). 

The  outer  coat  is  nourished  by  small  blood-vessels,  called  vaso- 
vasorum,  which  are  quite  voluminous  in  the  large  arteries.  Nerves, 
vasomotor,  from  the  sympathetic  system  accompany  these  vessels. 

(b)  The  veins  are  likewise  cylindrical  tubes  which  accompany 
the  arteries  and  carry  the  impure  blood  from  the  distant  parts 
to  the  heart ;  with  one  exception,  the  pulmonary  veins  which  carry 
pure  blood  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  auricle.  They  have  two 
distinct  coats,  an  internal  serous  and  an  external  of  elastic  and 
muscular  fibres.  The  walls  of  veins  are  thin,  semitransparent  and 
elastic  and  collapse  when  empty.  Nourishment  is  provided  by  vaso- 
vasorum. 

The  interior  of  veins  is  remarkable  for  the  presence  of  valves 
which  favor  the  flow  of  blood.  No  valves  are  found  in  the  pul- 
monary and  portal  veins  and  vena  cava. 

(c)  The  nerves  are  the  peripheral  portions  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem. They  originate  in  the  brain  or  cord  and  are  distributed  to 
every  part  of  the  body.    Their  structure  is  made  up  of  a  collection 


100  VETERINAKY  STATE  BOARD 

of  nerve  cells  bound  together  by  a  delicate  connective-tissue  net- 
work; a  number  of  these  collections,  united  together  and  covered 
by  neurilemma,  constitute  a  nerve.  Blood-vessels  traverse  the 
connective  tissue.  On  the  upper  root  of  all  the  spinal  and  on  the 
track  of  certain  other  nerves  are  masses  of  nerve  cells,  ganglia. 
The  function  of  nerves  is  to  conduct  impulses  to  and  from  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord. 

Describe  the  structure  of  voluntary  muscle. 

Voluntary  muscle  is  made  up  of  a  great  number  of  fibres  which 
are  marked  by  transverse  furrows  or  strife,  giving  rise  to  the  term 
striated  or  striped  muscle.  Each  fibre  is  made  up  of  fibrils  and 
these  in  turn  can  be  subdivided  into  fibrillse  or  sarcous  elements, 
attached  to  each  other  end  to  end.  The  muscle  fibres  unite  to  form 
secondary  fasciculi  which  are  covered  by  a  connective  sheath,  the 
internal  perimysium.  The  secondary  fasciculi  unite  to  form  more 
voluminous  fasciculi  which  form  the  entire  muscle.  The  muscle  is 
covered  by  a  connective  sheath,  called  the  external  perimysium  or 
sareolemma.  The  nuclei  are  flat  or  oval  and  can  be  seen  on  the 
inner  face  of  the  sareolemma. 

State  the  difference  in  structure  between  striped  muscular  tissue  and 
unstriped  muscular  tissue. 
(See  answer  to  preceding  question.)  Unstriped  muscular  tissue 
has  no  transverse  strige  and  is  found  in  the  viscera.  It  is  not  under 
control  of  the  will,  hence  is  called  involuntary.  Its  structure  con- 
sists of  fusiform  cells,  each  with  a  distinct  nucleus  and  bound 
together  by  connective  tissue. 

Illustrate  the  difference  between  mucous  membrane  and  serous  mem- 
brane as  to  (a)  structure  and  (b)  location.     .  . 

(a)  Both  membranes  have  two  layers,  the  deeper  of  which  are 
quite  analogous.  In  mucous  membrane,  the  superficial  layer  may 
consist  of  epithelial  cells  only  one  layer  deep,  but  usually  there 
are  several  layers  (stratified).  Cilia,  hair-like  appendages,  are  seen 
on  the  surface  of  mucous  membranes  in  some  parts  of  the  bodj', 
as  well  as  depressions  in  the  deeper  layer,  giving  rise  to  follicles  and 
papillas.  In  serous  membranes,  the  superficial  layer  always  consists 
of  flat  polygonal  epithelial  cells,  one  layer  deep.  The  free  surface 
is  always  smooth. 

(b)  Mucous  membrane  is  found  throughout  the  inner  walls  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  respiratory  channels,  bladder,  urethra  and 
vagina.     Serous  membrane  is  found  within  the  thoracic  cavity. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  101 

lining  the  same  and  covering  the  enclosed  viscera,  as  well  as  in  the 
abdominal  cavity,  where  it  is  disposed  in  a  similar  manner. 

Mention  the  varieties  of  connective  tissue. 

Fibrous,  elastic,  cartilaginous  and  bone. 

Describe  the  composition  of  blood. 

Blood  contains:  liquor  sanguinis  or  plasma,  containing  in  solu- 
tion proteids  (serum-albumin,  serum-globulin,  fibrinogen),  extrac- 
tives, mineral  matter  and  gases;  corpuscles,  red  and  white. 

IName  the  structures  and  coverings  of  the  kidneys,  from  without  inward 
to  the  pelvis  and  the  opening  of  the  ureter. 

1,  Capsule;  2,  cortex,  composed  of  Malpighian  bodies,  support- 
ing connective  tissue,  vessels  and  tubules,  etc. ;  3,  medulla,  composed 
of  uriniferous  tubules  (loop  of  Henle,  convoluted  and  straight 
tubules)  ;  4,  crest  of  the  pelvis,  pelvis;  5,  infundibulum  of  the  pelvis 
and  ureter. 

Where  is  elastic  fibrous  tissue  found? 

It  is  found  closely  packed  in  certain  organs  such  as  the  ligamen- 
tum  nuchas  and  abdominal  tunic,  or  forming  a  network  in  the  midst 
of  connective  tissue,  as  in  the  walls  of  arteries.  It  is  also  found  in 
the  framework  of  bone. 

Name  the  different  kinds  of  epithelium.  State  where  ciliated  epithelium 
is  found  and  give  its  special  function. 

Kinds :  squamous,  columnar,  modified  and  specialized. 

Columnar  and  squamous  varieties  are  polyhedral,  pavement,  or 
tessellated  and  may  be  either  simple  or  stratified.  Modified  epi- 
thelium includes  the  ciliated,  goblet  and  pigmented  varieties. 
Specialized  includes  glandular  and  neuro-epithelium. 

Ciliated  epithelium  is  found  in  the  Eustachian  tube  and  parts 
of  the  tympanic  cavity ;  lachrymal  passages ;  respiratory  part  of  the 
nasal  fossse,  with  the  communicating  sinuses;  ventricles  of  the 
larjTix;  trachea  and  bronchi;  epididymis  and  first  part  of  the 
vas  deferens. 


PHYSIOLOGY* 

What  does  the  study  of  physiology  comprise  ? 

The  sum  of  the  knowledge  couceruiug  the  function  of  living 
things. 

Explain  the  force  of  the  following :  "  Physiology  is  the  study  of  the 
properties  of  cells." 
All  animal  and  vegetable  life  is  composed  of  minute  structural 
elements,  called  ''cells."  Every  living  organism  is  derived  from 
a  parent  cell,  the  ovum,  which,  through  endless  division  and  sub- 
division, develops  into  a  mature  body.  Since  physiology  treats  of 
the  structure  and  function  of  living  things,  it  may  be  truly  said 
that  ' '  physiology  is  the  study  of  the  properties  of  cells. ' ' 

What  properties  does  a  cell  possess? 

A  cell  wall,  cell  body  of  protoplasm  which  includes  a  nucleus 
and  a  nucleolus.  The  vital  manifestations  of  a  cell  embrace 
metabolism,  growth,  reproduction  and  irritability. 

Describe  cell  division. 

Direct  cell  division,  the  simplest  form,  consists  of  a  direct  cleav- 
age of  the  cell  body  and  nucleus  into  two  parts. 

Karyokinesis,  mitosis  or  indirect  cell  division,  is  more  complex 
and  includes  a  series  of  changes  involving  the  nucleus,  the  centro- 
somes  and  the  cytoplasm.  In  this  form,  the  chromatin  of  the  nucleus 
arranges  itself  in  a  star-shaped  skein,  the  bars  of  which  compose 
themselves  symmetrically.  The  two  symmetrical  parts  separate, 
followed  by  a  cleavage  of  the  cell  body,  making  two  distinct  cells 
in  which  the  chromatin  granules  are  more  or  less  scattered.  The 
latter  then  assume  a  normal  appearance  and  soon  each  new  cell 
prepares  itself  for  division. 

Name  the  eliminative  organs  of  the  body  and  state  what  each  elim- 
inates. 
Skin:  Eliminates  water,   urea,   uric   acid,   fatty  acids,   carbon 
dioxide,  serum  albumin,  serum  globulin,  fat,  and  sodium  and  potas- 
sium salts. 

Kidneys:  Eliminate  water,  urea,  uric  acid,  hippuric  acid,  ben- 
zoic acid,  phenol,  sulphates,  phosphates,  and  chlorides  of  sodium, 
potassium,  calcium  and  magnesium. 

*  Unless  otherwise  stated  all  questions  relate  to  the  horse. 
102 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  103 

Lungs:  Eliminate  carbon  dioxide  and  water. 

Faeces  consist  of  the  undigested  portion  of  the  food  which  is  indi- 
gestible, together  with  that  which  though  digestible  has  escaped 
absorption ;  mixed  with  these  are  water,  coloring  substances,  mucin, 
organic  matters,  inorganic  salts,  bile  pigment,  volatile  fatty  acids, 
remains  of  digestive  fluids,  microorganisms,  etc. 

Define  excretion.    Mention  four  ways  in  which  waste  matter  of  the 
body  is  eliminated. 
Excretion  refers  to  the  throwing  off  or  ejection  of  waste  matter, 
formed  in  the  body,  which  is  not  intended  to  be  retained  in  the 
body  and  if  retained  would  be  harmful. 

Waste  matter  is  eliminated  by  the  urine,  fasces,  skin  and  expired 
air.  ' 

Explain  the  meaning  of  four  of  the  following :  chordae  tendinae,  haema- 
tin,  Goll's  column,  bile  salts,  accommodation. 

Chordae  tendinae  are  the  small  tendinous  cords,  attached  to  the 
free  border  of  the  heart  valves,  which  unite  the  latter  to  the  walls. 

Hcematin  is  the  iron-containing  substance  of  the  haemoglobin. 

GoU's  column  is  the  superior  median  tract  or  column  of  the 
spinal  cord. 

Bile  salts,  two  in  number,  glycocholate  and  taurocholate,  are 
formed  in  the  liver  by  the  union  of  cholalic  acid  with  glycin  and 
taurin. 

Accommodation  refers  to  the  power  which  the  eye  possesses  of 
focusing  itself  for  near  and  distant  objects. 

Define  and  illustrate  five  of  the  following  terms:  absorption,  chyle, 
excretion,  ferment,  tidal  air,  phagocytosis,  alimentation. 

Absorption  is  the  process  of  taking  up  fluids  or  other  sub- 
stances by  the  skin,  mucous  surfaces  or  absorbent  vessels,  e.g., 
absorption  of  chyle  by  the  lacteals. 

Chyle  is  the  milky  fluid  taken  up  by  the  lacteals  from  the  digested 
food  in  the  intestines. 

Excretion  is  the  act  or  process  of  eliminating  waste  matter  from 
the  body,  e.g.,  urea  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys. 

Ferment  is  a  substance  which  decomposes  or  causes  fermentation 
in  other  substances  with  which  it  comes  in  contact,  e.g.,  pepsin 
changes  proteids  into  peptones. 

Tidal  air  is  the  quantity  of  air  taken  in  and  expelled  by  an 
ordinary  respiration.  In  the  horse  it  amounts  to  about  250  cubic 
inches. 


104  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Phagocytosis  is  the  destruction  of  microorganisms  and  injurious 
substances  by  the  phagocytes,  e.g.,  leucocytes  envelop  and  digest 
bacteria. 

Alimentation  is  the  act  or  process  of  affording  nourishment, 
e.g.,  food  in  the  alimentary  canal. 

Define  the  following  terms :  excretion,  secretion,  exosmose,  decussation, 
reflex  action. 

Excretion:  see  preceding  question. 

Secretion  is  the  process  of  separating  from  the  blood  and  cells 
a  substance  intended,  eventually,  to  be  utilized  in  the  body. 

Exosmose  is  the  act  of  liquids  and  gases  in  passing  outward 
through  a  membrane. 

Decussation  refers  to  the  crossing  of  the  fibres  of  the  pyramids  of 
the  medulla  from  one  pyramid  to  another. 

Reflex  action  is  an  involuntary  movement  produced  by  stimu- 
lation of  a  peripheral  nerve. 

State  the  kind  of  epithelium  (a)  in  the  lungs,  (b)  in  the  stomach,  (c) 
in  the  larynx. 

(a)  Single  layer  of  polygonal  plates,  mostly  without  nuclei  and 
including  groups  of  small  and  round  cells. 

(b)  Tall  columnar,  some  of  which  are  the  goblet-cell  variety. 

(c)  Stratified,  ciliated,  columnar  and  stratified  squamous. 

Describe  the  function  of  the  blood,  gland  cells  and  nerves  in  secretion. 

How    does    secretion    differ    from    (a)    transudation,    (b) 

oedema,  (c)  exudation? 

Secretion  is  the  result  of  the  activity  of  the  protoplasm  of  the 

secreting  cell.    The  inorganic  constituents  of  a  secretion  are  derived 

from  the  blood  by  osmosis ;  the  organic  constituents  are  the  results 

of  active  manufacturing  processes  occurring  within  the  protoplasmic 

cell-contents.     Through  the  impulse  conveyed  by  the  nerve,  the 

glandular  blood-vessels  dilate  and  secretion  is  stimulated. 

Secretion  differs  from  transudation,  oedema  and  exudation,  in 
that  the  latter  are  merely  acts  of  filtration  or  osmosis  and  no  glandu- 
lar activity  is  concerned. 

Which  organ,  liver  or  kidney,  receives  the  greater  amount  of  blood, 

and  what  conditions,  anatomic,  hydrostatic  and  circulatory, 

contribute  to  the  difference? 

The  liver  receives  the  greater  amount  because  of  its  greater  size, 

more  dependent  position  and  greater  blood  supply;  besides  the 

hepatic  artery,  the  portal  vein,  draining  the  whole  splanchnic  area, 

empties  into  it. 


(QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  105 

What  are  the  physical  properties  of  bone?  How  does  the  chemical 
composition  of  bone  vary  with  age? 

Bones  are  composed  of  an  outer  layer  of  compact  tissue  and  of  a 
spongy,  reticular  tissue  which  forms  the  interior  (marrow).  The 
compact  tissue  is  traversed  by  channels  called  ''Haversian  canals," 
from  which  radiate  numerous  canaliculi ;  the  latter  are  surrounded 
by  concentric  lamellae  of  bone,  separated  by  spaces  (lacunae)  con- 
taining the  bone  cells,  corpuscles.  These  lacunae  communicate  with 
the  Haversian  canals  through  the  canaliculi.  The  inner  spongy  tis- 
sue contains  large  marrow  cavities.  The  exterior  of  bone  is  covered 
by  a  thin,  tough,  protective  membrane,  the  periosteum. 

As  age  advances,  the  bones  contain  less  organic  matter  and  more 
of  the  inorganic  constituents. 

Give  the  composition  of  bone.  State  how  bone  is  nourished  and  give 
the  function  of  long  bones. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Bones  consist  of  connective  tissue,  the  substratum  of  which  is 
osseine  (an  animal  matter  which  yields  gelatin  upon  boiling), 
impregnated  with  lime  salts,  chiefly  calcium  phosphate.  Bone  is 
composed  of  one-third  animal  matter  and  two-thirds  mineral  mat- 
ter. Nourishment  is  supplied  to  bone  by  a  nutrient  artery  which 
sends  branches  into  the  medullary  and  Haversian  canals. 

Long  bones  serve  an  important  part  in  locomotion  by  imparting 
rigidity  to  the  limbs  and  furnishing  muscular  attachments,  as  well 
as  by  entering  into  the  formation  of  joints. 

Mention  the  functions  of  the  articular  cartilages. 

1.  Favor,  by  their  smoothness,  the  gliding  and  displacement  of 
bones. 

2.  By  their  suppleness  and  elasticity,  they  lessen  the  violent 
shocks  to  which  the  articulations  are  exposed. 

3.  They  resist  the  wear  and  deformations  of  the  articular  sur- 
faces. 

Mention  with  regard  to  the  body  (a)  the  principal  secreting  organs, 
(b)  the  excreting  organs,  (c)  the  vital  organs. 

(a)  Salivary  glands,  gastric  glands,  liver,  pancreas,  sebaceous 
glands,  synovial,  mucous  and  serous  membranes,  lachrymal  glands. 
The  spleen,  thymus,  thyroid  and  adrenals  have  an  internal  secretion. 

(b)  Skin,  kidneys,  bowels  and  lungs. 

(c)  Heart,  lungs,  brain,  intestines,  liver,  kidneys. 


106  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Mention  the  elements  composing  proteids. 

Nitrogen,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  varying  amounts  of 
sulphur. 

Mention  the  inorganic  constituents  of  the  animal  body. 

1.  Water. 

2.  Salts,  viz.,  salts  of  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium 
and  iron  in  the  form  of  ,chlorides,  sulphates,  phosphates  and  car- 
bonates. 

3.  Gases,  viz.,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  carbon  dioxide, 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  marsh  gas. 

Blood 
What  is  blood? 

The  blood  is  the  fluid  that  circulates  through  the  heart,  arteries 
and  veins,  carrying  nutriment  and  oxygen  to  the  tissues  of  the 
body.  It  is  a  red,  opaque,  rather  viscous  fluid  with  an  alkaline 
reaction,  characteristic  odor  and  saltish  taste ;  specific  gravity  1060. 

What  is  the  chemical  composition  of  the  blood  ? 

Water  81  parts. 
Solids  19  parts. 

Hemoglobin  (0.4  per  cent,  iron)  13  parts. 

Proteids  4  parts. 

Fibrinogen 

Serum  globulin 

Serum  albumin 

Fibrin  ferment 

Fibrin  globulin 
Salts  1  part. 

Sodium  chloride 

Potassium  chloride 

Sodium  carbonate 

Calcium  phosphate 

Magnesium  phosphate 

Sodium  phosphate 

Potassium  phosphate 
Extractives  0.6  part. 

Fats 

Cholesterin 

Lecithin 

Creatin 

Urea 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  107 

Hippuric  acid 
Uric  acid 
Grape  sugar. 
Nitrogen,  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  gases  are  also  present. 

Describe  the  composition  of  the  blood  with  reference  to  the  nature  and 
the  purpose  of  each  component  part. 
It  consists  of  a  colorless  liquid,  the  plasma,  containing  red 
blood-corpuscles  (erythrocytes),  yellowish,  circular,  biconcave  discs, 
containing  lia?moglobin  which  carries  the  oxygen;  white  blood-cor- 
puscles (leucocytes),  white  spherical  amoeboid  masses  of  proto- 
plasm, having  phagocytic  powers ;  blood  platelets,  small  bodies,  one- 
quarter  the  size  of  a  red  cell,  function  unknown. 

Mention  the  proteids  of  the  blood. 

Fibrinogen,  serum  albumin,  serum  globulin,  fibrin  ferment  and 
fibrin  globulin. 

Mention  three  gases  found  in  the  blood.    Indicate  the  relative  amount 

of  each  of  these  gases  in  arterial  blood  and  in  venous  blood, 

respectively. 

Oxygen,  carbon  dioxide  and  nitrogen.     In  the  arteries,  oxygen 

is  present  in  a  greater  amount  and  carbon  dioxide  in  a  lesser 

amount  than  in  the  veins.     The  amount  of  nitrogen  is  practically 

the  same  in  both  cases. 

State  the  average  amount  of  blood  in  the  horse. 

6.6  per  cent,  of  the  body  weight.    About  66  pounds  or  55  pints 
in  the  average  horse. 

Describe  the  function  of  (a)  red  blood-corpuscles,  (b)  leucocytes. 

(a)  Carriers  of  oxygen. 

(b)  Take  up  and  digest  bacteria  and  other  injurious  substances 
(phagocytosis). 

State  how  the  red  blood-corpuscles  vary  in  size  and  shape  in  the  dif- 
ferent animals. 
Horse:  non-nucleated,  biconcave  discs,  4  to  5  microns  in  diameter. 
Ox:  non-nucleated,  biconcave  discs,  3  to  5  microns  in  diameter. 
Sheep :  non-nucleated,  biconcave  discs,  2  to  4  microns  in  diameter. 
Dog:  non-nucleated,  biconcave  discs,  5  to  7  microns  in  diameter. 
Cat:  non-nucleated,  biconcave  discs,  5  to  6  microns  in  diameter. 
Camel :  non-nucleated,  oval  bodies,  7  microns  long,  4  microns  broad. 
Fowls:  nucleated,  oval  bodies,  12  microns  long,  7.5  microns  broad. 


108  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

What  are  the  principal  differences  between  arterial  blood  and  venous 
blood? 
Arterial  blood  contains  more  oxygen  and  less  carbon  dioxide, 
more  water,  fibrinogen,  extractives,  salts  and  sugar,  fewer  blood- 
corpuscles  and  less  urea;  its  temperature  is,  on  the  average,  1°  C. 
lower.  Venous  blood  is  darker  in  color,  due  to  the  diminution  in  the 
oxygen-content. 

What  is  the  color  of  the  blood  in  the  renal  veins?    Why? 

Dark-blue,  same  as  all  venous  blood.  In  its  passage  through  the 
kidney,  the  blood  loses  oxygen  and  takes  up  carbon  dioxide,  there- 
fore, it  is  venous  in  character  as  it  leaves  this  organ. 

What  salts  render  the  blood  alkaline? 

The  phosphate  and  bicarbonate  of  soda. 

Describe  the  process  of  coagulation  of  the  blood. 

The  blood  first  becomes  a  jelly  and  then  a  firm  clot.  The  clot  con- 
tracts and  squeezes  out  a  fluid,  serum.  As  this  serum  accumulates, 
the  clot  sinks.  The  substance  which  brings  about  coagulation  is 
fibrinogen,  which,  being  acted  upon  by  the  ferment,  thrombin, 
produces  fibrin. 

Of  what  does  a  blood  clot  consist?    How  would  you  demonstrate  the 

presence  of  fibrin  in  freshly  drawn  blood? 

A  blood  clot  consists  of  fibrin  and  blood-corpuscles.     Fibrin 

may  be  demonstrated  by  defibrinating  freshly  drawn  blood.     This 

is  accomplished  by  whipping  the  blood  with  a  rod  or  bunch  of 

twigs;  the  fibrin  separates  rapidly  and  collects  on  the  rod. 

What  influences  the  combination  of  haemoglobin  with  oxygen? 

The  atmospheric  pressure  of  oxygen  being  higher  than  the 
pressure  of  the  oxygen  in  the  venous  blood  as  it  arrives  at  the  heart 
may  play  a  very  small  part  in  influencing  the  taking  up  of  oxygen  by 
the  blood;  but  the  strong  affinity  of  heemoglobin  and  oxygen  for 
each  other  is  of  greater  influence.  This  subject  has  not  been  satis- 
factorily explained. 

How  is  oxygen  carried  in  the  blood  and  where  is  it  exchanged  for 
carbon  dioxide? 
It  is  carried  in  the  blood  united  with  the  haemoglobin,  as  oxy- 
hsemoglobin.     It  is  exchanged  for  carbon  dioxide  in  the  tissues. 

When  serum  is  used  subcutem  for  therapeutic  purposes,  what  danger 
attends  its  transfer  from  one  genus  to  another? 
Haemolysis,  breaking  down  of  red  blood-corpuscles  and  liberation 
of  haemoglobin,  occurs. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  109 

What  morbid  and  dangerous  states  of  the  blood  may  be  connected  with 

the  suspension  of  biliary  secretion? 

Jaundice,  intoxication  with  the  waste  products  of  the  biliary 

secretion  (cholesterin  and  lecithin)  and  the  poisonous  products  in 

the  alimentary  canal,  due  to  constipation  following  a  lack  of  the 

stimulating  action  of  bile  on  peristalsis. 

What  is  (a)  oxyhasmoglobin,  (b)  methasmoglobin,  (c)  haematoidin? 

(a)  Hremoglobin  charged  with  oxygen. 

(b)  A  modification  of  oxyliEemoglobin  in  which  the  oxygen  is 
more  firmly  united  than  in  ordinary  oxyha?moglobin.  It  occurs 
pathologically  whenever  there  is  a  sudden  breaking  down  of  the  red 
blood-corpuscles,  e.g.,  as  in  azoturia. 

(c)  A  yellow-brown,  crystalline,  iron-free  product,  derived  from 
hcematin.    It  is  found  in  old  blood  clots. 

Heart 
What  is  the  influence  of  the  vagus  nerve  on  the  heart?     What  would 
be  the  effect  on  the  heart  if  the  vagi  nerves  were  cut? 
The  vagus  (pneumogastric)  has  a  restraining  or,  as  it  is  termed, 
an  inhibitory  effect  on  the  heart  movements.    If  cut,  the  inhibitory 
action  is  removed,  the  heart  rate  is  greatly  increased,  and  the 
blood-pressure  rises. 

Describe  the  cardiac  sounds. 

There  are  really  four  cardiac  sounds,  but,  as  they  occur  in  pairs, 
we  recognize  only  two.  The  first  sound  is  dull,  deep,  prolonged 
and  louder  than  the  second,  which  is  short,  not  so  deep  and  not 
so  loud.  The  two  sounds  are  best  reproduced  by  pronouncing 
the  words  "liibh  dupp." 

What  are  the  cardiac  sounds ?    What  causes  these  sounds? 

See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

The  first  sound  is  caused  by  the  closing  of  the  auriculoven- 
tricular  valves  and  the  contraction  of  the  muscular  fibres.  The 
second  sound  is  due  to  the  closure  of  the  semilunar  valves. 

Explain  the  action  of  digitalis  on  the  heart. 

It  reduces  the  frequency  of  the  heart-beat  and  later  excites  the 
cardiac  muscle  to  a  stronger  and  prolonged  systole.  It  is  a  cardiac 
tonic. 

Define  (a)  systole,  (b)  diastole,  (c)  cardiac  cycle. 

(a)  Systole  is  the  term  applied  to  the  heart's  contraction.  It 
occurs  synchronously  with  the  first  heart  sound;  by  it,  the  blood  is 
driven  into  the  aorta  and  pulmonary  artery. 


110  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

(b)  The  dilatation  or  stage  of  dilatation  of  the  heart. 

(c)  A  cardiac  cycle  is  a  complete  cardiac  movement  or  heart- 
beat. It  includes  the  period  from  the  beginning  of  one  heart-beat 
to  the  end  of  another,  i.e.,  the  systolic  and  diastolic  movements  with 
the  interval  between. 

Blood-vessels 

How  do  arteries  and  veins  differ  in  (a)  structure,  (b)  function?  What 
arteries  carry  venous  blood  and  what  veins  carry  arterial 
blood? 

(a)  The  walls  of  veins  are  thinner  than  those  of  arteries  and 
they  collapse  when  empty.  They  contain  less  elastic  and  muscular 
material  and  more  fibrous  tissue  than  arteries.  Veins  are  provided 
with  valves  which  are  not  present  in  arteries. 

(b)  Veins  carry  impure  blood  from  the  tissues  to  the  heart. 
Arteries  carry  pure  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
body.  There  are  two  exceptions,  viz.,  the  pulmonary  artery  carries 
venous  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  lungs  and  the  pulmonary  vein 
carries  pure  blood  from  the  lungs  to  the  heart. 

How  does  the  internal  coat  of  an  artery  differ  from  that  of  a  vein? 
Arteries  have  no  valves  as  do  the  veins. 

Discuss  the  forces  that  cause  the  blood  to  circulate  in  (a)  the  arteries, 
(b)  the  capillaries,  (c)  the  veins. 

(a)  Force  of  the  heart's  contraction,  and  the  elasticity  of  the 
arterial  walls. 

(b)  Pressure  from  arteries  and  elasticity  of  the  walls. 

(c)  Muscular  contractions,  valves,  gravity,  and  negative 
pressure  in  veins  leading  directly  into  the  right  heart. 

Describe  the  course  of  the  blood  from  the  right  auricle  back  to  the 
same  point.    What  part  of  this  circulation  is  called  the  sys- 
temic circulation? 
From  the  right  auricle,  blood  flows  through  tlie  tricuspid  valve 
into  the  pulmonary  artery,  to  the  lungs,  returning  to  the  left  auricle 
through  the  pulmonary  veins,  completing  the  pulmonary  circulation. 
From  the  left  auricle,  the  blood  begins  the  systemic  circulation, 
passing  through  the  bicuspid  valve  into  the  left  ventricle,  thence 
through  the  aortic  semilunar  valve  into  the  aorta,  which  divides 
and  subdivides  until  every  part  of  the  body  is  supplied.    Collecting 
in  the  veins,  it  is  carried  through  the  anterior  and  posterior  vena 
cava  to  the  right  auricle,  whence  it  started,  thus  completing  the 
systemic  circulation. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  111 

Describe  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Discuss  the  relative  velocity  of  the  blood  in  the  arteries,  capillaries  and 
veins. 
Greatest  velocity  is  in  the  arteries,  least  in  the  capillaries,  and 
rising  again  in  the  veins. 

Define  blood-pressure.     Mention    (a)    factors   that   increase   blood- 
pressure,   (b)   factors  that  decrease  blood-pressure. 
Blood-pressure  is  the  tension  on  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels 
derived  from  the  blood  current. 

(a)  Increase  in  force  of  the  heart-beat  and  contraction  of  the 
arterioles. 

(b)  Decrease  in  the  force  of  the  heart-beat  and  dilatation  of  the 
arterioles. 

Where  is  blood-pressure  (a)  the  highest,  (b)  the  lowest?     How  is 
blood-pressure  governed? 

(a)  In  the  region  of  the  aorta, 

(b)  In  the  region  of  the  periphery. 

Blood-pressure  is  governed  by  the  contraction  of  the  heart  and 
the  resistance  offered  by  the  peripheral  vessels ;  all  being  regulated 
by  the  vasomotor  centre  in  the  brain. 

Describe  the  flow  of  blood  in  the  arteries. 

The  centre  of  the  vessel  is  occupied  by  a  column  of  rapidly 
moving  red  cells,  while  between  them  and  the  vessel  wall  is  a  clear 
layer  in  which  the  white  corpuscles  move  slowly  along,  occasionally 
stopping  along  the  sides,  then  moving  forward  once  more. 

What  is  meant  by  the  velocity  of  the  blood  ?  State  where  this  velocity 
is  (a)  the  greatest,  (b)  the  least. 
Velocity  refers  to  the  rate  at  which  the  blood  flows  through  the 
blood-vessels.  The  velocity  varies  inversely  as  the  sectional  area  of 
the  tubes.  Since  the  total  sectional  area  of  the  capillaries  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  arteries  or  veins,  the  velocity  is  least  in  the  capil- 
laries and  greatest  in  the  arteries. 

What  causes  the  flow  of  blood  in  the  veins? 

Muscular  contractions,  valves,  gra"\'ity  and  the  negative  pressure 
in  the  veins  leading  directly  into  the  right  auricle. 

Why  is  blood-pressure  highest  at  the  beginning  of  an  expiration  and 
lowest  at  the  beginning  of  an  inspiration? 
At  the  beginning  of  expiration,  which  is  really  the  height  of 
inspiration,  the  intrathoracic  pressure  is  greatest,  more  blood  is 


112  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

forced  into  the  aorta  and,  therefore,  the  blood-pressure  is  highest. 
At  the  beginning  of  an  inspiration,  which  is  really  the  end  of  an 
expiration,  there  is  a  negative  intrathoracic  pressure,  the  blood  is 
aspirated  into  the  right  auricle  and  the  blood-pressure  is  lowest. 

Describe  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  brain. 

Supplied  by  the  cerebrospinal  branch  of  the  external  carotid, 
which  divides  into  two  branches,  the  median  spinal  and  basilar,  and 
the  internal  carotid,  which  divides  into  the  posterior  communicating 
and  the  common  trunk  of  the  anterior  and  middle  cerebral  arteries. 

The  venous  arrangement  is  very  remarkable;  the  walls  of  the 
veins  are  composed  of  the  dura  mater  and  portions  of  the  cranial 
bones.  The  veins,  or  sinuses  of  the  brain,  are  large  cavities  which, 
because  of  their  unyielding  walls,  allow  the  venous  blood  to  return 
freely.  The  cerebral  circulation  is  assisted  by  the  fluid  in  the  ven- 
tricles of  the  brain.  This  fluid  passes  from  one  ventricle  to  another 
and  to  the  spinal  cord;  therefore,  when  the  external  pressure  be- 
comes greater,  the  internal  becomes  less,  thereby  avoiding  any 
compression  of  the  brain  substance. 

Describe  the  portal  circulation. 

The  portal  circulation  begins  in  the  small  mesenteric,  the  great 
mesenteric  and  splenic  veins,  all  of  which  unite  to  form  the  portal 
vein.  The  latter,  beginning  near  the  great  mesenteric  artery,  passes 
through  the  pancreatic  ring  and  divides  in  the  great  posterior  fissure 
of  the  liver  to  enter  its  structure,  carrying  the  venous  blood,  which, 
after  circulating  through  the  liver,  leaves  it  by  the  hepatic  vein. 

Describe  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  kidney. 

The  blood  enters  at  the  hilus  by  the  renal  artery,  which  breaks 
up,  after  entering  the  organ,  into  a  large  number  of  branches ;  these 
branches  run  in  a  nearly  parallel  direction  through  the  medullary 
portion  until  the  cortex  is  reached,  where  they  diverge  in  various 
directions  to  enter  the  Malpighian  corpuscles.  In  these  bodies 
there  is  a  plexus  of  capillaries,  the  glomeruli,  and  leading  from 
them  are  small  vessels,  arranged  similar  to  the  arterial  branches, 
which  unite  to  form  the  renal  vein. 

Give  the  normal  pulse  of  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  ox,  (c)  the  dog,  (d)  the 
sheep,  (e)  the  cat. 
(a)  36-40;  (b)  45-50;  (c)  90-120;  (d)  70-80;  (e)  90-120. 

Vascular  Glands 

Mention  the  vascular  glands. 

Spleen,  thymus,  thyroid,  adrenals,  pituitary  and  pineal  bodies. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  113 

Name  two  vascular  glands.    Give  the  function  of  each. 

Spleen:  Red  blood-corpuscles  are  formed  in  the  spleen  during 
intra-uterine  life,  but  after  birth  they  are  destroyed  in  it.  This 
organ  is  thought  by  some  to  produce  an  enzyme  which  converts 
trypsinogen  into  trypsin  and  also  to  produce  uric  acid.  It  serves  as 
a  reservoir  for  the  abdominal  circulation. 

Thyroid :  This  gland  has  an  internal  secretion  which  is  directed 
to  the  nutrition  of  the  body.  The  nature  of  this  secretion  is  not 
well  understood. 

Respiration 

Describe  the  process  of  respiration.  Describe  the  changes  that  take 
place  in  inspired  air  during  the  process  of  respiration. 

The  act  of  respiration  is  divided  into  two  parts,  inspiration  and 
expiration.  The  former,  by  which  the  chest  is  filled  with  air,  is  a 
purely  muscular  act;  the  diaphragm  contracts  and  therefore  re- 
cedes, the  ribs  are  rotated,  being  drawn  forward  and  outward,  their 
posterior  edges  everted,  and  the  intercostal  space  widened.  By 
these  means  the  capacity  of  the  chest  is  increased  and  the  lungs 
expand  to  fill  the  space,  thus  causing  air  to  rush  in.  Expiration  is 
effected  by  the  recoil  of  the  lungs  and  the  displaced  abdominal 
organs,  the  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles  and  the  internal 
intereostals.  Through  these  movements  the  air  is  expelled  from 
the  lungs. 

During  respiration,  part  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  is  taken  up 
by  the  blood  in  exchange  for  carbon  dioxide  which  is  thrown  off. 

How  are  the  diameters  of  the  chest  enlarged  during  inspiration? 

By  the  recession  of  the  diaphragm,  the  anteroposterior  diameter 
of  the  chest  is  lengthened  from  four  to  five  inches  and  by  the  out- 
ward rotation  of  the  ribs,  the  transverse  diameter,  between  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  ribs,  is  increased  one  and  one-half  inches. 

Compare  inspired  air  with  expired  air  as  to  relative  quantity  of  oxygen, 
nitrogen  and  carbon  dioxide. 
Inspired  air  contains  more  oxygen  and  less  carbon  dioxide  than 
expired  air ;  the  amount  of  nitrogen  is  the  same  in  both. 

Oxygen. 
Inspired  air 20.96 

Expired    air    16.02 

Mention  the  functions  of  respiration. 

Supplies  oxygen  to  the  blood  and  excretes  carbon  dioxide,  solids, 
moisture,  etc. 
8 


Nitrogen 

Carbon  dioxide 

79.01 

0.03 

79.01 

4.38 

114  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  in  full  the  functions  of  the  lungs. 

Medium  of  interchange  of  carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen  between 
the  air  and  blood. 

Name  (a)  two  inspiratory  muscles,  (b)  two  expiratory  muscles.    What 
is  the  normal  stimulus  to  the  action  of  these  muscles? 

(a)  Diaphragm  and  external  intercostals. 

(b)  Abdominal  and  internal  intercostals. 

Inspiration  is  presided  over  by  a  centre  in  the  medulla.  Ex- 
piration is  thought  to  be  a  purely  passive  act. 

Discuss  the  absorption  of  gas  by  fluids. 

If  the  atmosphere,  containing  a  mixture  of  gases,  be  exposed  over 
a  fluid  containing  some  of  these  gases  dissolved  in  it,  it  is  found 
that  if  the  proportion  of  dissolved  gases  in  the  fluid  is  less  than 
their  proportion  in  the  atmosphere,  the  latter  pass  into  the  fluid 
until  the  amounts  in  air  and  fluid  are  equal.  Likewise,  if  the 
fluid  contains  more  dissolved  gas  than  the  atmosphere,  gas  will  pass 
from  the  fluid  to  the  air  above  until  the  amounts  are  equal.  This 
is  a  process  of  diffusion. 

Define  tidal  air  and  residual  air. 

Tidal  air  is  the  air  breathed  in  and  out  in  an  ordinary  respiration. 
Residual  air  is  that  which  always  remains  after  a  forced  expiration. 

Give  the  normal  number  of  respirations  per  minute  in  (a)  the  horse, 
(b)  the  ox,  (c)  the  sheep,  (d)  the  hog,  (e)  the  dog. 
(a)  8-16;  (b)  12-15;  (c)  12-20;  (d)  10-15;  (e)  15-20. 

What  is  the  ratio  of  respirations  to  the  pulse  beats  ? 
About  1:4. 

Describe  the  lining  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  touching  on  epithelium  and 
glands. 
The  bronchi  are  lined  with  mucous  membrane  composed  of 
ciliated  epithelium  and  containing  mucous  glands. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  following:  (a)  eupnoea,  (b)  hy- 
perpnoea,  (c)  dyspnoea,  (d)  apnoea? 

(a)  Easy  or  normal  respiration.     , 

(b)  Moderate  increase  in  the  respiratory  movements. 

(c)  Difficult  or  labored  breathing. 

(d)  Transient  cessation  of  breathing  following  a  forced  respira- 
tion. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  115 

Describe  the  different  stages  of  asphyxia.  How  does  asphyxia  cause 
death? 

First  stage :  labored  breathing,  all  muscles  of  respiration  being 
brought  into  play ;  convulsions ;  blood-pressure  rises. 

Second  stage:  inspiratory  muscles  less  active;  expiratory 
muscles  still  powerful ;  convulsions  cease. 

Third  stage:  unconsciousness,  occasional  inspiratory  gaspings, 
mouth  open,  the  pupils  dilated,  pulse  imperceptible,  blood-pressure 
falls.  Death  occurs  from  five  to  six  minutes  after  the  beginning  of 
the  first  stage. 

Asphyxia  causes  death  by  creating  a  deficiency  of  oxygen  and  an 
excess  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  blood.  Carbon  dioxide  is  a  poison 
and  affects  the  cardiac  centre  in  the  brain,  causing  death. 

Give  the  composition  of  normal  air  and  state  how  it  supports  life. 

By  volume.  By  weight. 

Oxygen    20.96  23.015 

Nitrogen   79.01  76.985 

Carbon  dioxide   03  

Normal  air  supports  life  by  supplying  oxygen  which  it  contains 
in  an  uncombined  state. 

What  animals  may,  with  effort,  breathe  through  a  broken  long  bone? 
Why? 
Birds,  because  they  have  a  system  of  air  sacs  in  the  bones  which 
communicate  with  the  lungs. 

Digestion 

Give  the  different  steps  in  the  process  of  digestion. 

Prehension,  mastication,  salivation,  deglutition,  gastric  digestion, 
intestinal  digestion,  absorption  and  defecation. 

Give  the  dental  formula  for  the  horse  and  the  ox. 

r3-3 
3-3, 

4-4        3-3 
Horse:  I  ||,  C  ^.  P  Js^  ^  3=3"     '^^^^^  ^^-    ^°  ^^^^^«  ^  '^^^^'  ^^^^^  36. 

or 
4-4 
4-4' 

Ox-  I  — .  C  9^,  P  ?::?,  M  ?::?.    Total  32. 
4-4         O-O        3-3         3-3 


116  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

How  do  horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  respectively,  take  in  their  food? 
Have  these  methods  any  bearing  on  swallowing  non-alimen- 
tary and  harmful  bodies? 

Horses  preliend  the  food  mainly  with  the  lips  and  thoroughly 
masticate  it.  Because  of  this  thorough  mastication,  any  foreign 
body  is  quite  sure  to  be  detected  and  rejected. 

Cattle  use  their  long  tongue  to  convey  food  into  the  mouth, 
whence  it  passes  directly  to  the  rumen  through  a  thin,  distensible 
CESophagus,  hence  foreign  bodies  are  frequently  swallowed. 

Sheep  have  a  cleft  upper  lip  which  enables  them  to  graze  closely 
and  pick  up  very  small  objects.  They  have  a  delicate  manner  of 
eating  and  are  less  liable  to  swallow  foreign  bodies  than  cattle,  but, 
owing  to  their  method  of  swallowing  their  food  with  little  or  no 
mastication,  foreign  bodies  are  more  commonly  found  in  their 
stomachs  than  is  the  case  with  the  horse. 

Name  the  digestive  ferments.     What  digestive  ferments  act  on  (a) 
fat,  (b)  starch,  (c)  proteid? 
Ptyalin,  pepsin,  rennin,  trypsin,  steapsin,  amylopsin,  entero- 
kinase,  erepsin,  maltase,  invertase  and  lactase. 

(a)  Steapsin;  (b)  ptyalin  and  amylopsin;  (c)  pepsin  and 
trypsin. 

What  are  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  saliva? 

An  alkaline,  opalescent,  or  slightly  turbid  liuid  which  readily 
froths  when  shaken.  On  exposure  to  the  air  it  throws  down  a 
deposit  of  calcium  carbonate  due  to  the  loss  of  carbon  dioxide. 
It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1005.  Microscopically,  it  consists  of 
epithelial  scales  and  salivary  corpuscles.  Saliva  consists  of  a  0.6 
per  cent,  mineral  matter  and  0.2  per  cent,  organic  matter,  the  latter 
consisting  of  mucin  and  small  amounts  of  proteid  matter.  The  salts 
are:  calcium  carbonate,  calcium  chloride,  calcium  phosphate,  mag- 
nesium chloride  and  magnesium  phosphate.  It  contains  a  ferment 
known  as  ptyalin  which  converts  starches  into  sugar.  The  gases 
of  saliva  are :  carbon  dioxide,  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 

Name  four  uses  of  saliva. 

Assists  in  mastication  and  swallowing;  stimulates  the  nerves  of 
taste  and  has  an  amylytic  action.  In  ruminants,  it  assists  in 
rumination. 

Describe  the  cells  of  the  parotid  gland  when  actively  secreting. 

The  granular  material  passes  toward  the  centre  of  the  acinus  or 
lumen,  leaving  each  cell  with  a  clear  outer  edge  and  the  edge  next 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  117 

the  lumen  is  granular;  when  the  cells  are  exhausted,  they  are 
smaller  and  remarkably  clear,  only  a  few  granules  being  left  on  the 
inner  edge,  whilst  the  lumen  is  now  distinct  and  large  and  the 
nuclei  become  large  and  rounded,  showing  the  nucleoli. 

Compare  the  amount  of  saliva  in  the  horse  with  that  in  the  ox.     On 
what  conditions  does  the  amount  secreted  depend? 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  horse  secretes  84  poimds  and  the 
ox  112  pounds  of  saliva  in  24  hours.  The  amount  depends  on  the 
dryness  of  the  food,  more  being  secreted  when  eating  dry  than  moist 
foods. 

How  is  food  when  swallowed  prevented  from  getting  into  the  posterior 
nares  and  the  larynx? 
The  soft  palate  prevents  food  entering  the  posterior  nares  and 
the  epiglottis  protects  the  larynx. 

Describe  the  phenomena  of  regurgitation  in  ruminants. 

Rumination  is  a  reflex,  nervous  act  and  can  only  be  performed 
by  means  of  the  united  action  of  the  diaphragm,  stomach  walls  and 
abdominal  muscles.  It  is  performed  as  follows :  The  churning  move- 
ment of  the  rumen  throws  the  food  gently  against  the  oesophageal 
groove,  when  a  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  diaphragm  and  abdom- 
inal muscles  forces  some  of  the  liquid  content  of  the  reticulum  and 
the  solid  matter  from  the  rumen  into  the  oesophagus.  The  funnel- 
shaped  extremity  of  the  latter  contracts  and  cuts  off  the  bolus,  which, 
by  a  reverse  peristaltic  action,  is  conveyed  to  the  mouth.  After  a 
thorough  mastication,  the  bolus  is  reswallowed  and  passes  directly 
into  the  third  compartment  of  the  stomach. 

Explain  fully  why  a  normal  horse  can  rarely  vomit. 

1.  The  cardiac  extremity  of  the  oesophagus  is  thickened  and 
contracted. 

2.  The  oesophagus  enters  the  stomach  in  an  oblique  direction. 

3.  The  dilated  pylorus  lies  close  to  the  contracted  cardia,  so  that 
compression  of  the  stomach  contents  forces  them  into  the  duodenum. 

4.  The  mucous  coat  is  thrown  into  folds  over  the  cardiac  opening, 

5.  Encircling  the  cardia  are  muscular  loops  the  contractions  of 
which  keeps  the  opening  tightly  closed. 

6.  The  stomach  is  not  in  contact  with  the  abdominal  wall. 

State  the  function  of  the  stomach. 

It  thoroughly  mixes  the  food  and  through  the  action  of  the 
enzymes,  secreted  by  its  walls,  converts  proteid  matter  into  pep- 
tone, thereby  rendering  it  absorbable.     In  young  animals,  there  is 


118  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

another  enzyme,  rennin,  which  curdles  milk.  In  the  stomach  of 
dogs,  free  hydrochloric  acid  is  present;  it  aids  in  the  digesting 
of  bone. 

Give  the  composition  of  gastric  juice.    From  what  is  the  hydrochloric 
acid  derived? 
"Water,  hydrochloric  acid,  lactic  acid,  pepsin,  rennin,  chlorides, 
phosphates  and  iron. 

The  hydrochloric  acid  of  the  gastric  juice  is  thought  to  be 
derived  from  the  gastric  glands  which  form  it  from  the  chlorides, 
which  the  mucous  membrane  takes  up  from  the  blood. 

Describe  the  digestion  of  proteids  in  the  stomach. 

Pepsin  converts  proteids  into  peptones.  This  change  is  effected 
through  several  stages.  The  intermediate  products  in  the  order  in 
which  they  occur  are: 

1.  The  proteid  as  consumed,  or  native  albumin. 

2.  Acid  albumin,  or  syntonin. 

3.  Primary  proteoses. 

4.  Secondary  proteoses. 

5.  Peptones. 

How  many  stomachs  has  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  ox,  (c)  the  goat,  (d) 
the  camel? 

(a)  One;  (b),  (c)  and  (d)  one  stomach  divided  into  four  com- 
partments, which  gives  rise  to  the  common  statement  that  they  have 
four  stomachs.  The  fourth  compartment,  the  abomasum,  is  the 
true  stomach  and  is  practically  the  same  as  the  stomach  of  other 
animals. 

State  the  condition  of  food  as  it  leaves  the  abomasum. 

It  is  a  soft,  pasty  mass  with  a  sour  odor  and  alkaline  reaction; 
the  proteids  have  been  converted  into  peptones  and  the  starch  is 
said  to  have  been  digested.    In  the  young,  the  milk  has  been  curdled. 

State  the  extent  of  the  secreting  (peptic)  mucosa,  as  compared  with 
the  non-peptic,  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  hog  and  dog 
and  in  the  fourth  stomach  of  the  ox. 
In  the  horse,  the  peptic  mucosa  constitutes  about  two-thirds  of 
the  whole  lining  of  the  stomach,  the  non-peptic  the  remainder. 

In  the  hog,  the  peptic  mucosa  constitutes  about  one-third,  the 
remainder  being  non-peptic. 

In  the  dog,  the  peptic  mucosa  extends  over  the  whole  extent  of 
the  stomach  wall. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  119 

In  the  ox,  about  the  same  relation  exists  between  the  two  as  in 
the  horse,  but  the  glands  of  the  pylorus  are  poorer  in  pepsin  than 
those  of  the  fundus. 

Name  the  different  digestive  ferments  in  the  gastric  secretion  of  the 

mature  horse  and  the  different  proximate  food  principles 

that  they  digest.     State  how  this  action  is  affected  in  each 

case  by  acidity  and  alkalinity,  respectively. 

Pepsin  acts  on  proteid  matter  and  can  only  do  so  in  an  acid 

medium.     The  gastric  secretion  is  said  by  some  to  contain  an 

amylolytic  ferment ;  at  any  rate,  the  saliva  swallowed  with  the  food, 

this  ferment,  or  both  convert  starch  into  sugar  in  the  stomach  and 

can  only  act  during  the  early  part  of  stomach  digestion  while  the 

reaction  is  alkaline. 

What  produces  the  sensation  of  (a)  hunger,  (b)  thirst? 

(a)  Hunger  is  referred  to  the  stomach,  but  the  reason  why  is 
not  known.  The  pneumogastric  nerves  may  be  divided  but  the  sen- 
sation of  hunger  remains.  The  stomach  may  be  full  or  empty  and 
hunger  still  exist. 

(b)  Thirst  is  referred  to  the  pharynx.  A  deficiency  of  mois- 
ture in  the  system  is  always  shown  by  a  dryness  of  the  pharynx  and 
palate.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  nervous  apparatus  involved  in 
thirst. 

Describe  peristaltic  action.     How  is  it  accomplished? 

Peristaltic  action  is  the  worm-like  movement  by  which  the  ali- 
mentary canal  propels  its  contents.  It  consists  of  a  wave  of  contrac- 
tion passing  along  the  tube,  anteroposteriorly.  It  is  accomplished 
by  the  contraction  of  its  circular  and  longitudinal  muscular  fibres. 

Mention  the  glands  of  the  intestinal  canal  and  state  their  function. 

Lieberkiihn  's  and  Briinner  's  glands  secrete  a  mucous  fluid  which 
contains  enzymes  as  follows :  succus  entericus,  enterokinase,  erepsin, 
inverting  ferments  (invertase,  maltase,  lactase).  These  enzymes 
have  very  important  digestive  actions. 

State  the  difference  between  chyme  and  chyle. 

ChjTne  is  the  liquid  mass  into  which  the  food  is  converted  by 
gastric  digestion.  It  is  a  yellow,  frothy,  precipitated,  slimy  fluid, 
which  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  intestinal  canal  possesses  a  peculiar, 
mawkish  smell,  and  in  the  ileum,  a  distinctly  fecal  odor.  In  the 
ileum,  the  contents  are  considerably  less  fluid. 

Chyle  is  the  milky  fluid  taken  up  by  the  lacteals  from  the  chyme 
in  the  intestines.     It  is  a  turbid,  alkaline  fluid,   containing  fat 


120  VETEKINAKY  STATE  BOAED 

globules.  In  starving  animals  it  is  transparent,  owing  to  the  absence 
of  fat,  and  in  herbivora  it  is  said  to  be  yellowish  or  yellowish-green, 
owing  to  the  chlorophyll  in  the  food. 

How  does  chyle  differ  from  lymph? 

Chemically  they  are  very  much  alike,  but  chyle  contains  fat, 
which  gives  it  a  milk>'  appearance.  Lymph  contains  lymph  cor- 
puscles and  possesses  the  power  of  spontaneous  clotting. 

State  the  function  of  the  double  colon  in  digestion. 

In  the  colon,  bacteria  attack  the  unabsorbed  products  of  proteid 
digestion,  reducing  them  to  simpler  end-products.  These  end- 
products  are  partly  absorbed,  but  mostly  passed  out  with  the  faces. 

What  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  faeces?  Compare  the  faeces  of  her- 
bivora with  the  faeces  of  carnivora. 

The  faces  consist  principally  of  that  portion  of  the  food  which 
is  undigestible,  together  with  that  part  which  though  digestible  has 
escaped  absorption. 

The  faces  of  herbivora  consist  mainly  of  inorganic  matter  (58 
per  cent.),  and  they  are  acid  in  reaction.  In  carnivora,  there  is 
less  inorganic  matter  (20  to  25  per  cent.),  and  they  are  alkaline  in 
reaction.  The  faces  of  carnivora  contain  a  large  amount  of  lime 
salts. 

What  relation  has  the  portal  vein  to  absorption  from  the  intestines? 

The  portal  vein  drains  the  whole  splanchnic  area,  hence  the  blood 
it  carries  is  charged  with  substances,  absorbed  from  the  intestinal 
canal,  that  are  by-products  formed  during  the  gradual  breaking- 
down  of  the  food  substances.  These  substances  are  those  which 
are  soluble  in  water,  such  as  salts,  sugar,  soaps,  and  peptone.  Pep- 
tone is  probably  changed  to  serum-albumin  during  absorption,  for 
peptone  in  the  blood  is  a  poison. 

Give  the  function  of  the  liver. 

Secretion  of  bile,  glycogenic  function,  formation  of  urea  and 
a  protective  function  (neutralizes  poisons). 

Give  the  blood  supply  of  the  liver. 

The  hepatic  artery  supplies  the  nutritive  blood.  The  functional 
blood  is  supplied  by  the  portal  vein. 

What  are  the  functions  of  the  bile?    Show  how  the  secretion  of  bile 
in  the  equine  differs  from  that  in  the  bovine. 
Functions  of  the  bile :  Emulsifies  fat,  stimulates  peristalsis  and 
has  slight  antiseptic  action  on  the  intestinal  contents. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  121 

Eqiiines  have  no  gall-bladder,  hence  the  bile  is  poured  into  the 
intestines  as  fast  as  it  is  secreted.  Bovines  have  a  gall-bladder  and 
in  this  capacious  receptacle  the  bile  is  stored  until  required.  It 
has  been  computed  that  a  horse  secretes  10  ounces  of  bile,  hourly, 
and  the  ox  only  4  ounces  in  the  same  time. 

What  is  glycogen? 

Glycogen  is  commonly  called  "animal  starch."  It  is  a  carbo- 
hydrate from  the  liver,  leucocytes,  cartilage  and  other  tissues.  It 
is  formed  in  the  liver  from  carbohydrates  and  proteids,  being  con- 
verted into  sugar  as  the  needs  of  the  system  require,  and  is  carried 
away  in  the  hepatic  vein. 

State  the  function  of  the  pancreas. 

The  pancreas  secretes  a  digestive  fluid  and  also  has  an  internal 
secretion  which,  in  some  way  not  well  understood,  governs  the 
amount  of  sugar  in  the  body. 

Give  the  composition  of  the  secretion  of  the  pancreas. 

The  pancreatic  fluid  is  an  alkaline,  clear,  colorless  fluid  with 
a  saltish,  unpleasant  taste  and  a  specific  gravity  of  1010  (in  the 
dog,  it  is  viscid).  It  contains  over  98  per  cent,  water,  the  balance 
being  salts,  of  which  sodium  chloride  is  the  most  important,  and 
organic  matter  which  contains  the  active  principles  of  the  fluid. 
These  enzymes  are  amylopsin,  steapsin,  trypsin  and  rennin. 

Give  the  ferments  of  the  pancreatic  juice  and  state  the  function  of  each. 

1.  Trypsin  is  a  proteolytic  enzyme  which  converts  proteids  into 
pepsin. 

2.  Amylopsin  is  a  diastatic  enzyme  which  converts  starch  into 
sugar. 

3.  Steapsin  is  a  lipolytic  enzyme  which  acts  on  fats. 

4.  Eennin  is  a  milk-curdling  enzyme. 

What  is  the  action  of  the  pancreas  on  the  production  of  glucose  in 
the  urine  and  how  is  this  action  understood  to  be  brought 
about? 
If  the  pancreas  be  removed,  glucose  appears  in  the  blood  and  is 
separated  by  the  kidneys,  causing  glycosuria.     If  only  partly  re- 
moved, glycosuria  occurs  but  to  a  lesser  extent.     It  is  not  known 
how  this  action  occurs,  but  it  is  considered  that  the  internal  secre- 
tion of  the  pancreas  acts  upon  a  ferment  in  the  muscles  and  makes 
the  decomposition  of  sugar  possible. 


122  VETERINAKY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  action  of  salt  in  digestion. 

Salt  increases  thirst  and  causes  the  animal  to  drink  more  water, 
which  increases  the  fluidity  of  the  food  and  thereby  aids  digestion 
and  absorption.  In  the  stomach,  it  forms  hydrochloric  acid,  which 
is  so  essential  to  gastric  digestion. 

Describe  several  conditions  that  retard  digestion. 

Improper  teeth  cause  improper  mastication  of  the  food,  which 
hinders  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids.  Improper  foods  (too  hot, 
too  bulky,  too  cold,  too  dry,  etc.)  retard  digestion.  Feeding  hay 
before  grain  causes  a  retention  of  the  latter  in  the  stomach,  and 
disease  conditions  of  any  part  of  the  alimentary  canal  retard  or 
entirely  prevent  digestion. 

Absorption 

Describe  the  lymph  as  to  (a)  appearance,  (b)  source,  (c)  function. 

(a)  A  transparent,  slightly  yellow-colored  fluid,  alkaline  in  reac- 
tion; occasionally  it  is  a  light  rose  color  from  the  presence  of  red 
blood-corpuscles,  and  it  is  often  opalescent  from  the  presence  of 
fat  globules. 

(b)  There  are  two  theories  advanced  to  account  for  the  for- 
mation of  lymph.  The  more  generally  accepted  one  is  the  physical 
theory.  According  to  this,  the  lymph  is  formed  from  the  blood  by 
the  process  of  filtration  and  osmosis.  The  second  or  secretory  theory 
is  based  on  the  secretory  activity  of  the  endothelial  lining  of  the 
capillary  walls. 

(c)  Lymph  is  a  sort  of  mediary  material  between  the  tissues  and 
the  blood,  by  which  nourishment  is  carried  from  the  blood  to  the 
tissues  and  effete  material  taken  back  to  the  blood.  Generally 
speaking,  the  lymphatic  system  is  the  drainage  system  of  the  body 
as  contrasted  with  the  blood,  the  irrigating  system. 

Describe  the  lymph-spaces,  the  lymph-capillaries  and  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  lymphatic  vessels. 

The  lymph-spaces  are  irregular  cavities,  lined  by  epithelioid 
plates,  found  in  the  connective  tissue  outside  of  the  blood-vessel 
walls,  into  which  the  lymph  passes  from  the  blood.  From  these 
spaces,  the  lymph  reaches  the  lymph-capillaries.  The  latter  are 
the  most  minute  branches  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  and  their  lining 
is  composed  of  the  same  epithelioid  plates  as  found  in  the  spaces. 
Between  these  plates,  crevices  are  supposed  to  exist  through  which 
the  lymph  transudes. 

The  lymphatic  vessels  follow  the  capillaries.  They  have,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  epithelioid  lining,  a  muscular  coat  and  a  connective-tissue 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  123 

covering.  Valves,  similar  to  the  ones  found  in  veins,  are  seen  in 
their  interior.  All  the  lymphatic  vessels  of  the  left  side  of  the  head 
and  neck,  the  left  fore  limb,  the  chest,  the  abdominal  cavity  and 
hind  limbs  converge  toward  and  empty  into  a  central  vessel,  the 
thoracic  duct,  which  empties  into  the  anterior  vena  cava;  the 
lymphatic  vessels  of  the  right  side  of  the  head  and  neck  and  the 
right  fore  limb  collect  and  pour  their  contents  by  a  separate  duct 
into  the  same  vein. 

What  medicinal  and  other  agencies  may  be  employed  as  lympha- 
gogues? 

Ingestion  of  large  quantities  of  water  assists  in  increasing  the 
amount  of  lymph.  Certain  agents,  when  injected  into  the  circu- 
lation, increase  the  flow  of  lymph,  such  as  peptone,  decoctions  of 
intestinal  wall,  liver,  etc.,  crystalline  bodies  such  as  sugar  and 
neutral  salts.  The  administration  of  sodium  citrate  by  the  mouth 
increases  the  general  lymphatic  circulation. 

In  what  diseases  of  connective  tissue  is  the  lymph  specially  involved? 
In  infected  wounds  and  suppurative  inflammations. 

What  forces  assist  the  flow  of  lymph? 

Contraction  of  vessel  walls,  aspiration  by  the  diaphragm,  con- 
traction of  the  abdominal  muscles,  peristalsis,  and  valves  in  the 
lymph-vessels. 

Skin 
State  the  function  of  the  skin. 

Protective  covering  for  the  body;  sense  of  touch;  excretion  of 
waste  matter  and  regulation  of  temperature. 

Describe  the  glands  found  in  the  skin  of  domestic  animals,  noting 
the  relative  number  and  complexity  of  these  in  the  different 
genera,  and  the  attendant  variation  of  the  product  in  amount 
and  facility  of  secretion. 
The  sweat-glands  in  the  ox  are  rudimentary,  consisting  merely 
of  oval  sacs  found  principally  on  the  mujzzle.     In  the  horse,  dog, 
cat,  sheep  and  hog  they  are  more  highly  developed,  being  long 
convoluted  tubes  which  pass  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the 
skin.    The  sweat-glands  of  the  horse  are  quite  generally  distributed, 
but  there  are  certain  parts  of  the  skin  which  sweat  more  freely  than 
others,  for  instance,  the  base  of  the  ears,  the  neck,  sides  of  the  chest 
and  the  inside  of  the  thighs.    IMules  and  donkeys  sweat  with  diffi- 
culty and  then  principally  at  the  base  of  the  ears.    Dogs  and  cats 


124  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

perspire  freely  on  the  foot-pads  and  but  very  little  elsewhere. 
The  sweating  of  pigs  is  confined  to  the  snout.  Sheep  are  said  to 
perspire  very  little  or  not  at  all. 

The  sebaceous  glands,  racemose  in  type,  are  scattered  quite  gener- 
ally over  the  bod}^  but  are  more  especially  developed  where  there 
is  an  abundant  supply  of  hair,  also  in  the  prepuce,  ears  and  eyelids. 
The  ducts  of  the  sebaceous  glands,  as  a  rule,  empty  into  the  hair 
follicles.  These  glands  are  very  numerous  in  sheep  and  secrete 
the  oily  substance  known  as  wool-fat  or  lanolin. 

What  is  the  difference  between  sebaceous  and  sudoriparous  glands? 

Sebaceous  glands  are  racemose  in  type;  their  secretion,  sebum, 
an  oily  substance,  is  formed  principally  by  a  fatty  degeneration  and 
breaking  down  of  the  cell-content. 

Sudoriparous  glands  secrete  sweat  by  a  true  secretory  activity 
of  the  cells  composing  them.  The  nerve  supply  to  sweat-glands  is 
more  acutely  developed  than  is  the  case  with  sebaceous  glands.  This 
is  demonstrated  by  the  effect  of  emotion  on  the  production  of  sweat. 

What  is  sebum?    State  where  and  how  it  is  secreted  and  give  its  func- 
tions. 
Sebum  is  the  secretion  of  the  sebaceous  glands;  it  is  a  thick, 
semifluid  substance,  composed  of  fat  and  epithelial  debris  from  the 
cells  of  the  Malpighian  layer.    For  manner  of  secretion,  see  answer 
to  preceding  question. 

Sebum  saves  the  epithelium  from  the  disintegrating  influence  of 
water,  protects  the  animal  from  the  elements,  especially  rain  storms ; 
keeps  the  skin  moist  and  pliable  and  maintains  a  glossy  hair  coat. 

State  the  effect  of  a  complete  compulsory  suppression  of  cutaneous 
perspiration. 
A  loss  of  body  heat  followed  by  death  in  a  few  days  is  produced 
by  varnishing  the  skin.    Formerly,  it  was  thought  that  this  result 
was  due  to  the  retention  of  poisonous  products. 

Of  what  does  dandruff  consist? 

Epithelial  scales,  fat,  coloring  matters,  salts,  silica  and  dirt. 

State  the  difference  in  structure  of  hair,  fur  and  wool. 

Fur  is  very  fine,  closely  set  hair,  and  is  distinguished  from 
ordinary  hair,  which  is  longer  and  coarser  and  generally  more  or 
less  present  with  it.  "Wool  is  a  modified  form  of  hair,  distinguished 
"by  its  slender,  soft  and  wavy  or  curly  structure  and  by  the  highly 
imbricated  or  serrated  surface  of  its  filaments. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  125 

Mention  the  conditions  that  favor  the  growth  of  wool  or  of  improve- 
ment in  its  quality. 
Good  feeding  of  a  rather  high  nitrogenous  diet;  neither  too  hot 
nor  too  cold  temperature;  dry  surroundings.  Salt  and  sulphur 
are  thought  to  aid  the  growth  of  wool ;  at  any  rate,  the  former  is 
indispensable  as  a  part  of  the  diet  and  should  be  given  regularly ; 
the  latter  is  valuable  as  a  mild  laxative  and,  by  its  general  tonic 
action,  may  improve  the  fleece. 

What  precautions  may  be  taken  to  limit  the  growth  of  an  injuriously 
long,  thick  coat  of  hair? 
Warm  quarters  and  blanketing  will  cause  shedding.     Clipping 
may  be  resorted  to. 

Urine 

Give  in  full  the  functions  of  the  kidneys. 

They  are  the  filtering  organs  of  the  body.  They  excrete  urine, 
which  consists  of  nitrogenous  waste  products,  salts  and  other  ex- 
crementitious  substances. 

What  is  the  structure  of  the  capsule  of  the  kidney  and  how  does  this 
capsule  affect  the  progress  of  the  urine  through  the  urinif- 
erous  tubules,  pelvis  and  ureter? 
It  is  composed  largely  of  fibrous  tissue  and  is  rigid  and  unyield- 
ing.    The  internal  pressure,  therefore,  tends  to  force  the  urine 
through  the  various  canals. 

Describe  the  cortical  layer  of  the  kidney  and  state  where  the  secretion 
of  the  liquid  and  solid  elements  of  the  urine  takes  place. 
The  cortical  layer  is  the  essential  secreting  region.  It  contains 
the  Malpighian  bodies  and  convoluted  tubules,  as  well  as  the  be- 
ginning of  the  straight  collecting  tubules.  Beneath  the  capsule, 
also  between  the  cortex  and  medulla,  is  a  narrow  layer  in  which 
no  glomeruli  are  found,  otherwise  the  cortex  is  filled  with  them. 

In  the  glomeruli,  the  water  and  perhaps  the  salts  are  passed 
out,  while  in  the  tubules  the  organic  matter  is  excreted. 

Give  the  composition  of  urine. 

Water. 

Organic  matter:  Urea,  uric  acid,  hippuric  acid,  creatine,  crea- 
tinine, benzoic  acid,  ethereal  sulphates  of  phenol  and  cresol,  color- 
ing matter  and  mucus. 

Salts:  Sulphates,  phosphates  and  chlorides  of  sodium,  potas- 
sium, calcium  and  magnesium. 


126  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Compare  the  urine  of  herbivora  with  the  urine  of  carnivora  as  to  its 
chemical  reaction  and  give  the  cause  for  the  difference. 
The  urine  of  herbivora  is  alkaline,  owing  to  the  excess  of  alkaline 
salts  of  organic  acids  contained  in  their  food,  such  as  malic,  citric, 
tartaric  and  succinic.  These  salts  are  converted  into  carbonates 
during  their  passage  through  the  body  and  appear  as  such  in  the 
urine.  The  urine  of  carnivora  is  acid  in  reaction,  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  the  acid  phosphate  of  soda. 

Give  the  reaction  and  specific  gravity  of  the  urine  of  (a)  the  horse,  (b) 
the  ox,  (c)  the  sheep,  (d)  the  dog. 
(a)  Alkaline,   1035;    (b)    alkaline,   1020;    (c)    alkaline,   1010; 
(d)  acid,  1050. 

What  is  the  average  amount,  by  weight,  of  excreta  and  of  urine  passed 
in  24  hours  by  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  cow? 

(a)  Excreta,  24  lbs. ;  urine,  8I/2  pints. 

(b)  Excreta,  75  lbs. ;  urine,  25  pints. 

What  are  the  sources  of  urea? 

Urea  is  a  nitrogenous  end-product,  derived  from  proteid*food 
and  proteid  tissues.  These  substances,  after  destruction,  are  dis- 
charged into  the  blood  in  the  form  of  ammonia  compounds  and  are 
then  converted  into  urea  in  the  liver. 

State  the  causes,  racial,  dietetic  and  pathologic,  that  tend  to  cause 
acidity  of  the  urine. 
The  urine  of  carnivora  is  acid,  due  to  the  acid  phosphate  of  soda. 
A  flesh  diet  or  starvation,  when  the  animal  is  living  on  its  own 
tissue,  produces  acidity  of  the  urine.  If  a  horse  is  fed  exclusively 
on  oats,  its  urine  becomes  acid,  because  the  acidity  increases  Avith 
the  nitrogen  contents  of  the  food;  oats  are  very  rich  in  nitrogen. 
The  urine  of  herbivora  is  acid  in  fevers  when  the  appetite  is  lost  or 
impaired,  also  in  catarrh  of  the  intestinal  tract. 

Nutrition 

Define  (a)  metabolism,  (b)  anabolism,  (c)  catabolism.    What  is  meant 
by  the  metabolism  of  nutrition? 

(a)  The  changes  occurring  in  living  tissues;  the  building  up 
and  breaking  down  of  the  body  tissues. 

(b)  The  building  up  process  or  the  conversion  of  matter  into 
protoplasm. 

(c)  The  breaking  down  process  or  the  conversion  of  protoplasm 
into  a  lower  state  of  organization  and  ultimately  into  waste 
products. 

By  the  term  "metabolism  of  nutrition"  is  meant  the  constructive 
or  anabolic  metabolism,  i.e.,  the  process  of  assimilation. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  127 

Name  some  of  the  important  food  proteids.     What  do  green  vegetables 
contain  ? 
Oats,  rye,  wheat,  corn,  barley,  brewers'  grains,  clover  and  grass. 
Green  vegetables  contain  a  large  proportion  of  protein.     The 
color  is  due  to  a  green  coloring  matter,  chlorophyll. 

Name  the  classes  of  non-nitrogenous  foods.  Give  a  list  of  the  foods 
that  come  under  each  class  named. 

1.  Carbohydrates:  starch,  sugar,  gum  and  cellulose, 

2.  Fat :  the  fat  part  of  milk  and  meat. 

3.  Inorganic  matter:  chlorine,  potassium,  sodium  and  iron. 

Mention  the  effete  materials  in  the  body  produced  from  nitrogenous 
foods. 
Urea,  uric  acid,  hippurie  acid,  creatine  and  creatinine. 

What  are  the  ultimate  results  of  proteid  foods  in  the  body  ? 
See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

What  is  the  chief  function  of  fat  in  the  body? 

By  its  oxidation,  it  supplies  heat  and  energy. 

What  would  constitute  a  proper  diet  for  a  horse  weighing  1500  lbs. 
and  working  every  day? 

Timothy  hay   10  pounds 

Oats     12  pounds 

Wheat  bran  4  pounds 

Corn    4  pounds 

Give  the  origin  and  the  destination  of  glycogen. 

Glycogen  is  derived  from  the  starch  in  the  food.  It  is  stored  in 
the  liver  and  dispensed  to  the  tissues  in  the  form  of  glucose. 

Discuss  briefly  the  nature  and  value  of  a  balanced  ration. 

A  balanced  ration  is  one  containing  all  of  the  food  elements  in 
the  proper  proportions  for  the  animal's  requirements  without  in- 
curring a  loss  in  weight.  The  tissues  require  all  of  the  food  elements 
but  in  different  proportions.  This  proportion  is  approximately  one 
part  of  proteid  to  six  parts  of  carbohydrate  and  fat. 

Give  a  daily  ration  containing  the  proper  relative  amount  of  dry  mat- 
ter, proteids,  fats  and  carbohydrates  for  a  dairy  cow  that 
weighs  900  pounds. 

Clover  hay 10      pounds 

Corn  silage  35      pounds 

Hominy  chops    2      pounds 

Wheat  bran    4..5  pounds 

Linseed  meal 2.5  pounds 


128  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  the  effects  of  starvation  on  the  tissue. 

The  animal  lives  on  its  own  tissues.  The  urine  of  herbivora  be- 
comes acid.  Nitrogen  is  eliminated  rapidly  at  first,  but  soon  only 
a  small  amount  is  lost  daily.  The  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  excreted 
falls  in  amount  and  the  absorption  of  oxygen  is  reduced.  The  fat 
suffers  the  greatest  loss,  being  nearly  all  consumed  before  death 
occurs.    The  central  nervous  system  suffers  no  loss. 

Animal  Heat 

How  is  the  heat  of  the  body  (a)  maintained,  (b)  regulated? 

(a)  By  muscular  contraction  and  tension,  glandular  activity 
and  tissue  oxidation. 

(b)  By  the  heat  centres  in  the  brain,  which  preside  over  and 
maintain  an  equality  in  heat  production  and  heat  loss. 

What  is  animal  heat?     What  conditions  influence  the  temperature  of 
the  body? 
Animal  heat  is  the  heat  produced  in  the  body  by  the  chemical 
changes  occurring  in  the  tissues.    Four-fifths  of  the  daily  heat  pro- 
duction is  generated  in  the  skeletal  muscles. 

Exercise,  feeding,  changes  in  the  atmospheric  temperature, 
variations  in  the  amount  of  humidity,  sweating,  defecation,  urina- 
tion and  respiration  influence  the  body  temperature. 

Give  the  average  normal  temperature  of  the  (a)  horse,  (b)  ox,  (c) 
dog,  (d)  sheep,  (e)  swine,  (f)  cat. 

(38.0°  C). 
(38.7°  C). 
(38.6°  C). 
(40.0°  C). 
(39.0°  C). 
(38.6°  C). 

Why  does  the  temperature  vary  with  external  conditions  in  cold- 
blooded animals  and  remain  constant  in  spite  of  external 
conditions  in  warm-blooded  animals? 
Because  of  the  difference  in  the  energy  of  tissue  changes.     In 
cold-blooded  animals  the  development  of  heat  is  so  slight  that  it 
is  quickly   dissii)ated  in  a  cold   atmosphere,   whereas,   in  warm- 
blooded animals  the  amount  of  heat,  on  account  of  the  greater 
energy  of  tissue  change,  is  so  much  greater  that  it  gives  up  only  a 
part  to  the  surrounding  medium.     Furthermore,  in  warm-blooded 
animals,  the  heat-regulating  mechanism  is  undoubtedly  more  highly 
developed,  in  fact,  there  would  seem  to  be  no  such  mechanism  in 
the  cold-blooded  animals. 


(a) 

100.4° 

F. 

(b) 

101.8° 

F. 

(c) 

101.5° 

F. 

(d) 

104.0° 

F. 

(e) 

103.3° 

F. 

(f) 

101.5° 

F. 

QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWEES  129 

Explain  why  the  temperature  does  not  rise  unduly  as  a  result  of  severe 
exercise. 
Because  the  heat-regulating  mechanism  causes  the  excess  of  heat 
to  be  lost  through  radiation,  sweating,  etc.,  and  thus  a  balance  is 
maintained. 

Mention  the  causes  of  the  variations  in  the  average  temperature  of  the 
horse  and  of  the  dog. 
A  rise  in  temperature  may  be  due  to  a  contraction  of  the  capil- 
laries in  the  skin,  following  a  cooling  of  the  exterior,  thus  sending 
more  blood  to  the  deeper  internal  parts.  Exercise  and  oxidation  of 
food  increase  the  body  heat,  therefore  there  is  a  daily  variation  corre- 
sponding to  periods  of  activity  and  rest.  When  the  peripheral 
vessels  dilate,  a  greater  radiation  occurs  and  the  internal  tempera- 
ture falls.  The  body  temperature  is  lowest  in  the  early  morning 
when  the  vital  processes  are  at  lowest  ebb. 

Describe  the  chief  factors  in  the  regulation  of  the  temperature  of  the 
body. 
The  heat  centres  in  the  brain  preside  over  the  heat-regulating 
mechanism.  Heat  loss  occurs  through  radiation  and  conduction, 
evaporation  of  sweat,  evaporation  from  the  mouth  and  nostrils, 
vaporizing  of  water  from  the  lungs,  warming  of  inspired  air,  feces 
and  urine.  Heat  production  occurs  through  oxidation  of  tissues, 
glandular  activity,  and  muscular  contraction  and  tension. 

What  is  a  calorie  or  heat  unit  ? 

A  large  calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  needed  to  raise  one  kilo- 
gramme of  water  from  0°  to  1°  C.  A  small  calorie  is  the  amount 
of  heat  needed  to  raise  one  gramme  of  water  1°  C.  in  temperature. 
(A  horse  produces  2.1  large  calories  per  hour  for  every  2.2  pounds 
of  body  weight  and  it  is  estimated  that  a  1100  pound  horse  loses 
20,684  large  calories  per  diem  when  at  rest,  24,500  at  moderate 
work  and  37,200  at  hard  work.) 

What  tissues  produce  the  greatest  amount  of  heat? 

The  skeletal  muscles;  four-fifths  of  the  daily  heat  production 
originating  in  them. 

Compare  the  natural  means  by  which  the  body  of  the  horse  is  cooled 

in  summer  with  the  means  by  which  the  body  of  the  dog  is 

cooled.     Explain. 

The  horse  loses  heat  to  a  great  extent  by  the  evaporation  of 

perspiration  from  the  skin.    The  dog  sweats  but  little  and  that  only 

on  the  foot-pads,  but  by  panting,  the  mouth  cavity  and  respiratory 

passages  are  supplied  with  a  rapidly  changing  current  of  air.    This 

9 


130  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

causes  a  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture  from  these  parts,  thereby 
cooling  the  body. 

Give  arguments  for  and  against  clipping  horses  in  winter. 

For  Against 

Less  sweating  and  loss  of  condition.  Require  blanketing  and  warmer  quar- 

Less  liability  to  effects  of  cold.  ters. 

Easier  to  groom. 

Muscular  System 

Define:  voluntary  muscle,  involuntary  muscle.     Give  an  example  of 
each. 
Voluntary  muscle  is  one  the  movements  of  which  are  under  the 
control  of  the  will ;  nearly  always  striated ;  e.g.,  any  skeletal  muscle, 
such  as  the  masseter,  biceps,  etc. 

Involuntary  muscle  is  one  the  movements  of  which  are  not 
under  the  control  of  the  will;  nearly  always  non-striated,  e.g., 
muscles  of  the  intestinal  walls,  bladder,  etc. 

What  peculiarities  has  the  heart  muscle? 

Heart  muscle  is  striated  but  is  involuntary.  Its  fibres  are 
formed  by  branched,  nucleated,  quadrilateral  cells  and  it  has  no 
sarcolemma. 

What  are  the  functions  of  muscle?     How  many  kinds  of  muscle  are 
there  ? 

Functions :  movements  of  the  skeleton,  contraction  of  the  heart, 
regulation  of  the  blood  supply,  transportation  of  ingesta  along  the 
alimentary  canal. 

Varieties:  1,  voluntary,  skeletal,  striped  or  red  muscle;  2,  in- 
voluntary, unstriated  or  pale  muscle ;  3,  heart  muscle. 

Discuss  the  phases  of  a  muscular  contraction.    What  chemical  changes 
accompany  muscular  contraction? 

1.  The  latent  period,  which  lasts  about  one  one-hundredth  part 
of  a  second,  is  the  time  occupied  by  the  stimulus  to  traverse  the 
nerve  and  by  the  muscle  in  preparing  itself. 

2.  The  period  of  contraction  occupies  about  one-twentieth  of  a 
second,  during  which  time  the  muscle  shortens. 

3.  The  period  of  relaxation  which  follows  the  maximum  of 
contraction  and  has  a  duration  of  about  one  one-hundredth  of  a 
second  longer  than  the  period  of  contraction. 

Chemical  changes  accompanying  muscular  contraction  are:  in- 
creased output  of  creatine,  urea,  carbon  dioxide,  sarcolactic  acid; 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  131 

production  of  heat  by  the  oxidation  of  the  carbohydrates,  glycogen 
and  sugar. 

Define  muscular  excitability.  What  conditions  tend  to  (a)  impair 
muscular  excitability,  (b)  enhance  muscular  excitability? 
Muscular  excitability  is  the  power  possessed  by  muscles  to 
respond  to  stimuli.  This  excitability  is  independent  of  the  motor 
nerve,  as  may  be  shown  by  injecting  curare  into  the  muscle,  when 
stimulation  of  the  motor  nerve  will  not  produce  muscular  contrac- 
tion, but  if  the  same  stimulus  is  applied  directly  to  the  muscle,  con- 
traction follows. 

(a)  Fatigue  and  lessened  blood  supply. 

(b)  By  training  and  "conditioning"  the  voluntary  muscles  are 
educated  to  work  in  the  best  and  most  economical  manner;  their 
response  increases  in  rapidity  and  power  and  their  relaxation  is 
quickened  to  prevent  loss  of  time. 

What  changes  take  place  in  a  muscle  as  a  result  of  rigor  mortis? 

The  muscle  becomes  firm  and  solid,  loses  its  elasticity  and  does 
not  respond  to  electrical  stimuli.  Its  reaction  is  no  longer  alkaline, 
but  becomes  acid  owing  to  the  sarcolactic  acid  formed.  The  proteids 
coagulate,  carbon  dioxide  is  produced  and  heat  is  evolved. 

Nervous  System 

Describe  (a)  an  efferent  nerve,  (b)  an  afferent  nerve.     Give  the  func- 
tion of  each. 

(a)  One  conveying  impulses  from  a  centre  to  the  periphery. 
This  impulse  may  cause  contractions  and  movements  of  muscles, 
blood-vessels  and  viscera,  or,  it  may  be  inhibitory  in  character  and 
thus  slow  the  heart,  retard  peristaltic  action,  etc. 

(b)  One  conveying  impulses  from  the  periphery  to  a  centre. 
The  impulse  may  be  one  of  the  special  senses,  sight,  hearing,  smell, 
etc.,  one  of  pain,  heat,  cold,  etc. 

Classify  nerves  according  to  function  and  state  the  function  of  each 
class  named. 

1.  Afferent  or  sensory. 

2.  Efferent  or  motor. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Describe  the  functions  of  the  spinal  cord. 

1.  Conducts  impulses  from  the  periphery  to  the  brain  and  vice 
versa. 

2.  Seat  of  numerous  reflex  actions. 

3.  Takes  some  part  in  coordination. 


132  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

What  are  the  functions  of  the  spinal  nerves  ? 

The  superior  roots  convey  sensory  impulses  from  the  whole 
hody,  except  certain  parts  of  the  face.  The  inferior  roots  convey 
motor  impulses  to  all  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  also  to  the  bladder, 
uterus,  intestines,  other  hollow  viscera,  blood-vessels,  and  sweat- 
glands. 

What  would  be  the  effect  of  division  of  one  of  the  inferior  nerve  roots 
of  the  spinal  nerves? 
Motor  paralysis  would  follow  in  the  parts  supplied  by  the  nerve. 

What  vi^ould  be  the  effect  if  both  nerve  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves  were 
cut? 
Sensory  and  motor  paralysis  would  follow  in  the  parts  supplied 
by  these  branches. 

What  is  reflex  action?     Describe  an  experiment  illustrating  reflex 
action. 

Any  involuntary  action  produced  by  a  stimulus  that  is  conveyed 
to  the  central  nervous  system  and  reflected  to  the  periphery.  If 
the  foot  of  a  frog,  with  its  brain  destroyed,  is  pinched,  the  leg  will 
be  drawn  away  from  the  irritant. 

Discuss  the  reflex  functions  of  the  spinal  cord. 

In  the  spinal  cord,  there  are  a  great  number  of  reflex  nerve  cen- 
tres which  are  capable  of  acting  independently  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent.  Each  centre  has  an  afferent  and  an  efferent  root  and 
is  able  to  generate  impulses  which  are  carried  to  the  periphery 
without  any  assistance  from  the  brain.  This  is  shown  by  experi- 
ments conducted  on  a  frog  with  the  brain  destroyed  as  described  in 
the  preceding  answer. 

What  is  the  difference  in  function  between  the  superior  and  the  inferior 
columns  of  the  spinal  cord? 
Through  the  superior  column,  impressions,  such  as  temperature, 
pressure  and  muscular  sense,  are  conveyed  to  the  cerebrum.  The 
inferior  column  conveys  motor  impulses  to  the  body.  The  respira- 
tory and  vasomotor  fibres  also  pass  through  the  inferior  column. 
So  it  may  be  said  that  the  superior  column  is  an  afferent  channel 
and  the  inferior  column  an  efferent  channel. 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  motor  nerve  and  a  sensory  nerve? 

A  motor  nerve  carries  motor  impulses  from  a  centre  to  the 
periphery  (efferent). 

A  sensory  nerve  carries  impulses  from  the  periphery  to  a  centre 
(afferent). 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  133 

State  the  function  of  the  phrenic  nerve. 

It  is  the  motor  nerve  to  the  diaphragm. 

■.Describe  the  effect  of  electric  stimulation  on  a  motor  nerve. 
Muscular  contraction  follows. 

Name  and  describe  the  membranes  of  the  brain.     Give  the  function  of 
each. 

The  outer  membrane,  the  dura  mater,  is  dense  and  fibrous  and 
serves  a  very  valuable  protective  function.  The  arachnoid  is  a 
serous  membrane  applied  against  the  inner  face  of  the  dura.  It 
contains  the  subarachnoid  fluid  which  equalizes  pressure  on  the 
brain  and  saves  it  from  jar  and  concussion.  The  pia  mater,  the 
most  internal,  is  a  thin  but  very  vascular  structure.  It  passes 
into  all  the  convolutions  of  the  surface  of  the  brain  and  supplies 
it  with  blood. 

State  the  function  of  the  cerebellum  and  describe  the  effect  of  its 
removal. 
The  cerebellum  presides  over  the  coordination  of  body  move- 
ments and  equilibrium.    If  removed,  the  power  of  coordination  is 
lost,  muscular  weakness  ensues  and  disturbances  in  equilibrium 
follow.  ' 

Locate  the  medulla  oblongata.     Mention  four  centres  located  in  it. 

The  medulla  is  located  at  the  upper  end  of  the  spinal  cord,  be- 
tween it  and  the  cerebrum,  and  rests  on  the  basilar  process. 

Centres  located  in  the  medulla  are:  the  respiratory,  vaso- 
motor, deglutition  and  vomiting. 

Discuss  the  functions  of  the  medulla  oblongata. 

Serves  as  a  medium  of  transmission  of  motor  and  sensory  im- 
pulses and  contains  centres  for  mastication  and  suckling,  secretion 
of  saliva,  deglutition,  vomiting,  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  coughing, 
sneezing,  closure  of  eyelids,  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the  blood- 
vessel walls,  cardiac  inhibition  and  respiration.  There  is  also  a 
centre  which  controls  the  glycogenic  function  of  the  liver. 

State  the  function  of  the  cerebrum. 

The  cerebrum  is  the  seat  of  sensation,  reasoning  and  will.  It 
contains  motor  and  sensory  areas  and  the  centres  for  sight,  hearing 
and  taste  are  located  in  it. 

Define  (a)  coordination,  (b)  augmentation,  (c)  inhibition,  (d)  autom- 
atism. 

(a)  Harmony  and  rhythm  in  muscular  movements. 

(b)  The  increasing  of  the  action  of  nerve  centres  by  afferent 
impulses. 


134  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

(c)  Arrest  or  restraint  of  a  process  effected  by  nervous  influence. 

(d)  The  power  possessed  by  nerve  centres  to  originate  nervous 
impulses. 

How  does  the  nervous  system  influence  secretion? 

Through  reflex  action,  as  shown  by  the  secretion  of  saliva  pro- 
duced by  the  presence  of  food  in  the  mouth,  or  of  the  gastric  juice 
by  food  in  the  stomach. 

What  are  (a)  voluntary  movements,  (b)  reflex  movements? 

(a)  Movements  under  control  of  the  will. 

(b)  Involuntary  movements  produced  by  stimulation  of  a 
peripheral  nerve. 

How  many  pairs  of  cranial  nerves  are  there?     Give  the  name  and  the 
function  of  any  one  pair. 
There  are  twelve  pairs  of  cranial  nerves.    The  first  pair,  olfac- 
tory, is  concerned  in  the  sense  of  smell. 

Give  the  function  of  the  optic  nerve. 

(The  second  pair  of  cranial  nerves.)     The  nerve  of  sight. 

Give  the  function  of  the  third  pair  of  cranial  nerves.    What  muscles 

does  it  supply? 

(The  oculomotor.)     The  motor  nerve  to  the  eyeball.    It  supplies 

all  the  muscles  of  the  eye,  except  the  external  rectus  and  superior 

oblique;  it  also  supplies  the  muscle  of  the  upper  lid  and  sends 

fibres  to  the  iris  and  ciliary  muscle. 

State  the  function  of  the  fourth  pair  of  cranial  nerves. 

(Patheticum.)  The  motor  nerve  of  the  superior  oblique  muscle 
of  the  eyeball. 

State  the  function  of  the  fifth  pair  of  cranial  nerves. 

(Trifacial.)  This  is  a  mixed  nerve,  i.e.,  both  motor  and  sensory. 
It  supplies  motor  power  to  the  muscles  of  mastication,  sensation 
to  the  side  of  the  face,  lips,  mouth,  temple,  part  of  the  ear,  cornea, 
conjunctiva,  nasal  mucous  membrane  and  anterior  two-thirds  of 
the  tongue.    It  also  sends  trophic  fibres  to  the  eyeball. 

What  is  the  function  of  the  sixth  pair  of  cranial  nerves? 

(Abducens.)  Supplies  motor  power  to  the  external  rectus 
muscle  of  the  eyeball. 

State  the  function  of  the  seventh  pair  of  cranial  nerves. 

(Facial.)  Motor  nerve  to  the  muscles  of  tlie  middle  ear,  exter- 
nal ear,  cheeks,  lips,  nostrils  and  orbicular  muscles  of  the  eye. 
Through  its  chorda  tympani  branch,  it  supplies  the  anterior  por- 
tion of  the  tongue  with  taste  and  sends  secretory  fibres  to  the  maxil- 
lary gland,  and  dilator  fibres  to  the  blood-vessels. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  135 

State  the  function  of  the  eighth  pair  of  cranial  nerves. 

(Auditory.)  Sense  of  hearing  and  maintenance  of  equilibrium 
through  its  connection  with  the  semicircular  canals. 

What  is  the  function  of  the  glossopharyngeal  nerve? 

(Ninth  pair  of  cranial  nerves.)  This  is  a  mixed  nerve;  it  sup- 
plies motor  power  to  the  muscles  of  the  pharynx  and  sensory  fibres 
to  the  posterior  third  of  the  tongue,  the  soft  palate,  part  of  the 
pharynx,  and  the  anterior  surface  of  the  epiglottis.  It  is  princi- 
pally concerned  in  deglutition  and  the  sense  of  taste  on  the  posterior 
third  of  the  tongue. 

V    State  the  function  of  the  pneumogastric,  or  vagus,  nerve. 

(Tenth  pair  of  cranial  nerves.)  It  supplies  sensation  to  the  ex- 
ternal ear,  pharynx,  oesophagus,  stomach  and  respiratory  passages; 
and  motor  power  to  the  muscles  of  the  pharynx,  larynx,  trachea, 
bronchi,  oesophagus,  stomach  and  intestines. 

It  is  the  inhibitory  nerve  of  the  heart  and  contains  vasomotor 
fibres  for  the  lungs  and  trophic  fibres  for  the  lungs  and  heart. 

What  is  the  function  of  the  eleventh  pair  of  cranial  nerves? 

(Spinal  accessory.)  Motor  nerve  to  the  sternomaxillaris,  mas- 
toidohumeralis,  and  the  cervical  and  dorsal  trapezius  muscles.  By 
giving  motor  fibres  to  the  vagus,  it  has  some  control  over  the  larynx 
and  voice. 

State  the  function  of  the  great  hypoglossal  nerve. 

(Twelfth  cranial  pair.)     Motor  nerve  to  the  tongue. 

What  nerves,  afferent  and  motor,  supply  the  larynx? 

Superior  laryngeal  branch  of  the  vagus  is  the  afferent  or  sen- 
sory nerve.  It  also  supplies  motor  fibres  to  the  cricothyroid  muscle. 
The  inferior  laryngeal,  or  recurrent,  branch  of  the  vagus  supplies 
all  the  muscles  of  the  larynx,  except  the  cricothyroid,  with  motor 
power. 

What  symptoms  would  ensue  in  case  of  a  transverse  section  of  the 
motor  nerve  supplying  the  arytenoid  muscles  on  one  side? 

Inspiratory  dyspnoea,  accompanied  by  a  roaring  or  whistling 
sound  due  to  paralysis  of  the  muscles  moving  the  vocal  cord.  The 
cord  would  hang  free  in  the  larynx  obstructing  the  air  current. 
Paralysis  of  this  kind  produces  the  disease  called  ' '  roaring. ' ' 

What  are  the  functions  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  ? 

The  sympathetic  nervous  system  supplies  vasodilator  and  vaso- 
constrictor fibres  to  the  blood-vessels,  the  viscera  with  motor  and 
inhibitory  fibres,  accelerator  fibres  to  the  heart,  dilator  fibres  to  the 


136  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

pupil,  secretory  fibres  to  the  sweat,  salivary  and  sebaceous  glands, 
motor  fibres  to  the  muscles  of  the  hair,  and  influences  the  process 
of  nutrition  in  general. 

Mention  the  three  classes  of  sympathetic  nerve  ganglia,  giving  the 
function  of  each. 

1.  Vertebral  ganglia,  afford  connection  with  the  cerebrospinal 
system. 

2.  Collateral  ganglia,  including  the  cardiac,  solar  and  mesenteric 
plexuses  which  send  branches  to  the  various  organs,  supplying  them 
with  accelerator,  vasomotor  and  secretory  fibres,  and  carrying  from 
them  afferent  impulses. 

3.  Terminal  ganglia,  fibres  originating  in  the  collateral  ganglia 
and  terminating  in  the  tissues,  control  certain  reflexes. 

Senses 

Name  the  appendages  of  the  eye  and  state  the  function  of  each. 

Eyelashes:  protective  function;  they  give  warnings  of  danger. 

Eyelids:  two  in  number,  protective  covering. 

Membrana  nictitans:  third  eyelid,  removes  foreign  bodies. 

Meibomian  glands:  secrete  an  oily  liquid  to  lubricate  the  edges 
of  the  lids  and  prevent  the  overflow  of  tears. 

Conjunctiva :  a  mucous  membrane  which  provides  a  smooth  glid- 
ing surface  between  the  lids  and  the  cornea. 

Caruncle :  small,  red  elevation  at  the  inner  canthus,  which 
directs  the  tears  toward  the  puneta. 

Lachrymal  apparatus:  secrete  and  carry  away  the  tears  which 
lubricate  the  cornea  and  inner  side  of  the  lids. 

Ocular  sheath :  binds  the  structures  of  the  orbit  together. 

What  is  the  function  of  the  iris?     Describe  the  innervation  of  the  iris. 
The  iris  regulates  the  amount  of  light  passing  into  the  eye.    Its 
circular  fibres  are  supplied  by  the  third  pair  of  cranial  nerves  and 
its  dilator  fibres  are  innervated  by  the  sympathetic. 

What  structures  in  the  horse's  eye  serves  the  purpose  of  the  human 

eyebrow?     Describe  clearly  the  position,  attachments  and 

movements  of  this  structure. 

The  membrana  nictitans.     It  is  situated  in  the  inner  angle  of 

the  eye,  and  is  continued  posteriorly  by  a  strong,  adipose  cushion 

which  insinuates  itself  between  all  the  muscles  of  the  eyeball.    When 

the  recti  muscles  retract  the  eye  in  the  orbit,  this  fatty  cushion  is 

forced  outwardly  and  the  membrana  nictitans  is  forced  forward 

over  the  eye. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  137 

State  the  function  of  the  corpora  nigra  (pigmentary  bodies  of  the  iris). 

Assist  in  absorbing  rays  of  light. 

Describe  the  process  of  focal  accommodation. 

The  crystalline  lens  becomes  more  convex  for  near  objects  be- 
cause the  rays  are  more  divergent.  This  convexity  is  brought  about 
by  the  bulging  of  the  lens  when  the  tension  on  the  capsule  is  lessened 
by  the  action  of  the  ciliary  muscle  which  contracts  and  draws  for- 
ward the  choroid  coat  and  with  it  the  ciliary  processes.  A  reversal 
of  this  process  will  produce  a  lesser  convexity  of  the  lens  and  thus 
properly  focus  distant  objects. 

What  are  the  functions  of  the  lachrymal  secretion? 

It  lubricates  the  conjunctiva,  keeps  the  cornea  brilliantly  polished 
and  washes  away  foreign  bodies. 

Describe  fully  the  function  of  the  auditory  nerve. 

Special  sense  of  hearing  and  through  its  connection  with  the 
semicircular  canals  assists  in  maintaining  the  equilibrium  of  the 
body. 

How  do  the  auditory  sensations  reach  the  brain? 

The  tympanum  receives  the  sound  wave  and  transmits  it  through 
the  chain  of  bones  (malleus,  incus  and  stapes)  to  the  fenestra  ovalis 
which  imparts  an  impulse  to  the  perilymph  of  the  labyrinth;  the 
perilymph  carries  the  impulse  through  the  vestibule  and  from 
here  it  is  carried  into  the  scala  vestibuli  of  the  cochlea.  The  vibra- 
tions pass  through  the  spiral-shaped  cochlea  and  set  in  motion  the 
membrane  of  Reissner ;  this  causes  the  lymph  in  the  cochlear  canal 
to  vibrate  and  reach  the  scala  tympani.  The  lymph  in  this  canal 
is  now  set  in  motion  and  affects  the  basilar  membrane  on  which 
the  organ  of  Corti  rests.  The  auditory  nerve  ends  in  the  organ  of 
Corti,  so  the  impressions  are  carried  from  this  organ  to  the  brain. 

What  is  the  function  of  the  Eustachian  tube  ? 

It  allows  an  equalization  of  pressure  on  both  sides  of  the  mem- 
brani  tympani. 

Name  the  four  primary  taste  sensations. 

Sweet,  bitter,  acid  and  salt. 

What  nerves  are  concerned  in  the  sensation  of  taste? 

The  gustatory  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  cranial  nerves,  which 
receives  fibres  from  the  chorda  tympani  of  the  seventh  pair,  sup- 
plies the  taste  buds  on  the  anterior  two-thirds  of  the  tongue.  The 
posterior  one-third  is  supplied  by  the  glossopharyngeal. 


138  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

What  three  sorts  of  impressions  are  obtained  through  the  cutaneous 
nerves  ? 

Temperature,  pain  and  pressure. 

The  Foot 

What  are  the  provisions  for  preventing  concussion  in  the  foot? 

1.  The  yielding  articulation  of  the  pedal  joint. 

2.  Expansion  of  the  heels  when  in  contact  with  the  ground. 

3.  The  foot-pad,  or  frog. 

4.  The  slight  descent  of  the  pedal  bone  and  sole,  when  weight 
is  placed  on  the  foot. 

What  are  the  uses  of  the  lateral  cartilages? 

1.  They  form  an  elastic  wall  to  the  sensitive  foot,  and  afford 
attachment  to  the  vascular  laminae. 

2.  They  carry  the  sensitive  laminae  outward  when  the  hoof  ex- 
pands and  so  prevent  any  disturbance  of  the  union  of  the  insensi- 
tive and  sensitive  laminae. 

3.  They  provide  passage  for  the  blood-vessels  and  their  move- 
ments assist  the  venous  circulation. 

4.  They  admit  of  expansion  under  the  influence  of  the  body 
weight. 

How  does  secretion  occur  from  horny  structures  and  what  provisions 
are  made  for  a  freer  secretion  at  given  points?     Name  such 
points. 
From  the  lower  edge  of  the  coronary  substance,  white,  proto- 
plasmic cells  are  poured  out  between  the  papilla?;  these  cells  are 
carried  down  and  pressed  between  the  sensitive  leaves.     As  the 
horny  leaves  pass  through  the  sensitive  leaves,  the  vascular  layer 
of  the  latter  furnishes  them  with  horny  lamellae. 

The  wall  is  thicker  and  longer  at  the  toe  and  quarters  than  at 
the  heels  because  it  is  at  these  regions  that  the  greatest  wear  and 
tear  occurs.  The  thinness  at  the  heel  corresponds  to  the  yielding 
power  it  possesses,  and  which  is  an  essential  part  of  the  anticon- 
cussion  mechanism. 

Mention  the  keratogenous  tissues  of  the  foot,  giving  the  function  of 
each. 

1.  The  coronary  cushion  secretes  the  wall. 

2.  The  velvety  tissue  secretes  the  sole  and  foot-pad  (frog). 

3.  The  laminal  tissue  secretes  the  horny  lamellfe. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  139 

State  the  functions  of  the  sensitive  laminae  or  podophyllous  tissue. 

It  is  the  seat  of  tactile  sense,  secretes  horny  lainellse  and  the 
horny  laminaj  to  cover  the  pedal  bone,  thus  providing  support  for 
the  body  weight. 

Define  physiologic  shoeing. 

Shoeing  of  the  normal,  or  healthy  foot,  as  contrasted  with  the 
special  shoeing  necessary  when  pathological  conditions  exist.  It 
comprises  the  proper  paring  of  the  foot  and  careful  adjustment  of 
the  shoe  so  that  the  bearing  surface  is  the  same  as  in  the  unshod 

foot,  or  in  other  words,  as  nature  intended. 

> 

Generation  and  Development 

State  the  function  of  the  testicle. 

The  production  of  semen,  especially  the  generative  element  of 
the  same,  viz.,  spermatozoa. 

Describe  fully  the  development  and  maturation  of  a  Graafian  follicle. 
The  germinal  epithelium  covering  the  ovary  grows  into  the  body 
of  the  latter  as  a  long  cylinder  of  cells.  These  cells  become  cut  off 
from  any  connection  with  the  outside,  and  one  cell  (occasionally 
two)  takes  on  the  appearance  of  an  ovum  and  the  remaining  cells 
become  the  membrana  granulosa,  enclosing  it.  A  connective-tissue 
capsule,  the  tunica  fibrosa,  forms  around  this  structure,  and  between 
it  and  the  membrana  granulosa  a  fluid,  the  liquor  folliculi,  appears. 
This  whole  structure  continues  to  grow  and  approach  the  surface 
where  it  remains  until  ovulation  occurs. 

Describe  the  placenta  and  state  its  function. 

The  placenta  is  a  membranous  structure  within  the  uterus  which 
establishes  communication  between  the  mother  and  foetus  by  means 
of  the  umbilical  cord.  In  the  mare,  it  is  diffuse,  i.e.,  the  villi  which 
intimately  unite  the  chorion  and  uterus  are  scattered  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  chorion.  In  the  cow,  the  placenta  is  cotyledonary, 
i.e.,  the  villi  are  gathered  into  tufts  upon  the  surface  of  the  chorion, 
and  these  tufts  correspond  to  elevations  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  uterus.  In  the  dog  and  cat,  the  villi  are  arranged  in  a  band- 
like manner  over  the  chorion  with  a  considerable  space  on  either 
side  free  from  villi.    This  form  of  placenta  is  called  * '  zonary. ' ' 

Describe  the  decidua  vera  of  the  cat  and  state  its  function. 

Zonary  type  (see  preceding  answer).  It  establishes  communi- 
cation between  the  mother  and  foetus  through  the  umbilical  cord. 

Give  the  source  and  character  of  uterine  milk. 

This  fluid  is  secreted  by  the  uterine  glands  and  lies  between  the 
^dlli  of  the  chorion  and  the  uterine  mucous  membrane.     It  is  of  a 


140  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

wMte,  or  rosy-white,  creamy  consistenej^  and  contains  proteids, 
fat  and  a  small  proportion  of  ash.  It  takes  part  in  providing  nour- 
ishment for  the  foetus. 

Describe  the  mammary  glands  o£  the  mare. 

The  mammary  glands  of  the  mare  are  two  hemispherical-shaped 
bodies,  lying  together  on  the  median  line  in  the  posterior  and  in- 
ferior abdominal  region,  in  the  position  of  the  scrotum  in  the  male. 
They  terminate  below  in  a  small  prominence,  the  nipple,  or  teat, 
which  is  traversed  by  several  sinuses  that  communicate  above  with 
the  milk  reservoir  and  open  on  their  free  extremity  by  two,  three 
or  four  canals.  The  gland  is  covered  externally  by  a  fibrous  coat 
which  sends  prolongations  into  its  interior  and  over  this  coat  is  the 
skin.  The  body  of  the  gland  proper  is  made  up  of  a  highly  devel- 
oped type  of  sebaceous  glands. 

Give  the  average  percentage  composition  of  (a)  cow's  milk,  (b)  mare's 
milk. 

Cow  Mare 

Water    87.00  91.8 

Solids    13.00  8.2 

Proteids    3.30  2.6 

Fat     4.00  .6 

Lactose    4.95  4.7 

Salts     75  .3 


PATHOLOGY* 

Define  pathology. 

Pathology  is  that  branch  of  medical  science  which  treats  of 
the  essential  nature  of  disease,  especially  of  the  structural  and 
functional  changes  caused  by  disease. 

Special  pathology  deals  with  the  pathologic  processes  in  certain 
diseases,  organs,  or  parts. 

How  do  infection,  poison  and  nervous  disorder,  respectively,  cause  a 
rise  of  temperature? 
Infection  by  bacteria  produces  toxins  which,  being  carried 
through  the  blood  to  the  brain,  stimulate  the  heat  centres.  Poisons 
are  taken  up  by  the  blood  and  act  the  same  way.  Nervous  dis- 
orders, by  disturbing  the  process  of  metabolism,  cause  toxic  prod- 
ucts, such  as  albumoses,  peptones,  or  ferments  to  be  found.  These 
products  are  carried  in  the  blood  to  the  heat  centres. 

Define  the  following  terms:  infection,  disinfection,  atrophy,  oedema, 
immunity,  anasmia,  hyperaemia,  cystitis,  orchitis. 

Infection  refers  to  the  entrance  into  the  system  of  a  disease- 
producing  microorganism  capable  of  self-multiplication. 

Disinfection  is  the  process  of  freeing  from,  or  neutralizing, 
pathogenic  germs  or  agents. 

Atrophy  is  a  wasting  or  diminution  in  the  size  of  a  part. 

ffidema  is  a  swollen  condition  of  tissue  caused  by  an  excessive 
accumulation  of  the  tissue  fluid,  lymph. 

Immunity  is  a  condition  of  an  animal  or  person  in  which  there 
is  an  insensitiveness  or  insusceptibility  to  a  certain  disease. 

An£cmia  is  a  reduction  in  the  quantity  or  quality  of  the  blood, 
affecting  the  cellular  elements  or  hgemoglobin  or  both. 

Hyperaemia  is  a  condition  in  which  there  is  an  excess  of  blood  in 
a  part  of  the  body. 

Cystitis  is  the  term  applied  to  an  inflammatory  condition  of  the 
urinary  bladder. 

Orchitis :  inflammation  of  the  testicles. 

Define  primary  and  secondary  lesion  and  illustrate  by  example. 

A  primary  lesion  is  a  pathological  condition  produced  at  the 
point  of  attack  by  the  causative  agent  (bacteria,  trauma,  etc.).  If 
from  this  point  pathogenic  material  is  carried  to  other  parts  of 

*  Unless  otherwise  stated  all  questions  relate  to  the  horse. 

141 


142  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

the  body  and  changes  are  produced  there,  the  later  formed  lesions 
are  secondary.  For  example,  from  an  abscess  on  the  leg  (primary 
lesion)  infection  may  be  carried  to  the  lungs,  liver,  etc.,  and  produce 
abscesses  in  these  parts  (secondary  lesions). 

State  what  value  you  would  give  to  each  of  the  following  agents  in 
the  development  of  an  infectious  disease:  microbes,  chill, 
electric  tension,  imperfect  ventilation,  impure  water,  de- 
cayed or  indigestible  foods,  emanations  from  sewers,  cess- 
pools or  heaps  of  manure,  impaired  health  or  vigor  from 
previous  illness,  fatigue,  overwork,  damp  soils,  exposure 
to  hot  summer  sun. 
The  first  named  agent,  microbes,  and  it  only,  can  produce  the 
disease  alone.    The  other  agents  can  only  act  as  accessory  factors  in 
lessening  the  resisting  powers  but  none  of  them  alone,  or  together, 
can  produce  an  infectious  disease  without  the  causative  factor,  the 
microbe. 

What  lesions  and  conditions  would  indicate  that  an  animal  had  been 
killed  by  lightning? 
Blood  is  dark  and  uncoagulated,  the  muscles  dark  brownish-red, 
the  endocardium  stained  by  the  altered  blood  and  the  heart  muscle 
shows  hemorrhagic  infarcts  in  death  by  lightning.  The  tissues  may 
be  lacerated,  showing  hemorrhages.  Branching,  tree-like  lines  of 
singeing  along  the  course  of  the  current.  Rapid  decomposition  with 
slight  rigor  mortis. 

Conditions  aiding  diagnosis  are:  fact  of  lightning  storm;  ani- 
mal being  found  under  a  tree  which  shows  the  effects  of  the  current. 

What  is  meant  by  auto-intoxication  ? 

Auto-intoxication  is  a  poisoning  of  the  organism  by  substances 
which  arise  in  the  body  itself  through  its  own  activity,  that  is,  it 
is  a  self-poisoning.  The  poisoning  is  the  result  of  the  absorption 
of  the  waste  products  of  metabolism  or  of  the  products  of  decom- 
position within  the  intestines. 

Define  metastasis.    Give  examples. 

Metastasis  is  the  transportation  through  the  blood-  or  lymph- 
stream  of  a  disease-producing  agent  and  the  production  of  disease 
at  the  point  of  deposit  of  such  agent,  e.g.,  living  cells  of  tumors  may 
be  carried  to  distant  parts  and  produce  daughter  tumors  at  the 
site  of  lodgement.  Vegetable  or  animal  parasites  are  carried  in  the 
blood-stream  from  one  part  to  another,  producing  disease  at  their 
point  of  lodgement.  The  movement  of  emboli  in  the  blood-vessels 
is  an  example  of  metastasis. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  143 

What  is  anaphylaxis? 

Increased  susceptibility  to  an  infection  or  to  the  action  of  any 
foreign  protein  introduced  into  the  body  following  a  primary  infec- 
tion.    The  opposite  of  immunity. 

Hypertrophy  and  Atrophy 

Describe  (a)  atrophy,  (b)  hypertrophy.     Give  the  causes  of  each  of 
these  conditions. 

(a)  Atrophy  is  a  diminution  in  the  size  of  an  organ  due  to  a 
diminution  in  size  or  disappearance  of  its  individual  elements. 
Causes:  senility,  impaired  nutrition,  pressure,  disuse,  and  neuro- 
pathic. 

(b)  Hypertrophy  is  an  increase  in  the  size  of  an  organ,  due 
either  to  an  increase  in  the  size  or  in  the  number  of  the  individual 
elements.  Causes:  compensatory  (overwork),  lessened  use  (as  in 
hoof  or  horn),  congenital,  neuropathic,  lessened  pressure,  inflam- 
matory. 

Degenerations 

Differentiate  fatty  degeneration  from  fatty  infiltration. 

Fatty  degeneration  is  characterized  by  the  degeneration  of 
tissue  cells  and  the  presence  therein  of  fat  droplets,  whereas  in 
fatty  infiltration  no  change  occurs  in  the  substance  of  the  cell  except 
it  be  from  pressure  of  the  fat  globules  without  or  inside  of  the  cells. 

What  is  necrosis  ?     Name  and  define  three  kinds. 

Necrosis  is  the  death  of  individual  cells  or  groups  of  cells,  as 
a  result  of  which  their  function  is  forever  lost.  Coagulation-7iecrosis 
is  characterized  by  the  occurrence  of  coagulation  of  the  fluids  about 
the  cells  or  of  the  cells  themselves,  due  to  the  infiltration  of  blood- 
or  fibrin-containing  Ij^mph.  Liquefaction-necrosis  is  due  to  the 
necrotic  parts  becoming  dissolved  in  the  fluids  present  in  the  tis- 
sues. Gangrene  is  a  form  of  necrosis  in  which  the  tissue  is  putrefied, 
showing  an  appearance  similar  to  that  occurring  in  burned  tissues. 
There  are  two  forms,  dry  and  moist,  depending  upon  the  presence 
or  absence  of  moisture. 

What  is  caseation-necrosis ?    Where  does  it  occur? 

Caseation-necrosis  is  a  form  of  necrosis  closely  resembling 
coagulation-necrosis.  It  is  characterized  by  either  a  hard  or  soft 
cheesy  appearance  in  the  necrotic  area.  It  occurs  most  frequently 
in  tubercular  nodules.  It  is  also  seen  in  very  cellular  tumors  and 
inflammatory  exudates. 


144  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Define  oedema  and  give  its  causes. 

(Edema  is  an  infiltration  of  the  tissues  and  serous  cavities  with 
a  serous  fluid,  lymph.  Causes:  obstructions  to  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  or  lymph,  anaemia,  changes  in  blood-vessel  walls,  dis- 
turbances of  metabolism. 

Define  (a)  anasarca,  and  (b)  calcification. 

(a)  Anasarca  is  a  serous  infiltration  (oedema)  of  the  super- 
ficial portions  of  the  body. 

(b)  Calcification  is  a  hardening  of  the  tissues  due  to  the  deposits 
therein  of  granular  masses  of  lime  salts,  particularly  phosphates. 

Inflammation 
Define  inflammation. 

Inflammation  is  the  phenomena  of  tissue-reaction  to  injury. 

Describe  the  process  of  inflammation.  Give  the  four  cardinal  symptoms 
of  inflammation. 

Following  injury  to  the  tissue,  there  is  an  increased  flow  of  blood 
to  the  part ;  then  occurs  changes  in  the  vascular  walls,  exudation  of 
serum,  diapedesis  of  leucocytes,  and  proliferation  of  the  connective- 
tissue  cells.  This  may  be  followed  by  subsidence  of  the  hyperemia, 
regeneration,  suppuration,  necrosis  or  some  other  form  of  degener- 
ation. 

Cardinal  symptoms  of  inflammation  are:  redness,  heat,  pain 
and  swelling. 

State  the  pathologic  blood  and  tissue  changes  in  inflammation. 
See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

What  is  productive  inflammation? 

Productive  inflammation  is  a  hyperplastic  formation  of  con- 
nective tissue  occurring  in  chronic  inflammation.  It  is  seen  on 
serous  surfaces  and  in  certain  organs  as  bone,  liver,  kidney,  lung, 
etc. 

Define  (a)  abscess,  (b)  ulcer,  (c)  fistula. 

(a)  A  circumscribed  collection  of  pus  in  the  substance  of  a 
part  or  organ,  usually  formed  by  the  disintegration  of  tissue. 

(b)  An  open  suppurating  wound  accompanied  by  tissue 
destruction.  ' 

(c)  A  suppurating  duct-like  cavity  extending  into  the  tissues. 

Name  four  inflammatory  exudates. 
Serum,  fibrin,  pus  and  blood. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 


145 


Tumors 

Classify  tumors  and  give  an  example  of  each  class. 

Connective-tissue  tumors,  as  fibroma  and  sarcoma. 
Specialized  tissue  tumors,  as  epithelioma  and  adenoma. 
Mixed  tissue  tumors,  as  dermoid  cysts. 

Describe  the  pathologic  difference  between  a  malignant  tumor  and  a 
non-malignant  tumor. 


Malignant  Tumors. 
Non-circumscribed. 
Infiltrate  neighboring  tissues. 
Rapid  growth. 
Spread  by  metastasis. 
Undergo  degenerative  changes. 
Cachexia   present. 


V on-Malignant  Tumors. 
Circumscribed. 

Do  not  infiltrate  neighboring  tissues. 
Develop  slowly. 
Non-metastatic. 
Seldom  degenerate. 
Cachexia  absent. 


What  is  cancer?     Name  the  varieties. 

Cancer  or  carcinoma  is  a  malignant  tumor  made  up  chiefly 
of  epithelial  cells.  It  is  characterized  by  an  infiltrative  growth 
and  the  formation  of  metastases.  Three  varieties:  squamous  epi- 
theliomata,  cylindrical  epitheliomata,  and  glandular-cell  cancers. 

What  is  melanosis  ?    Give  the  cause  of  melanosis. 

Melanosis  is  an  abnormal  deposit  of  black  matter  in  various  parts 
of  the  body.  The  color  is  due  to  the  pigment  melanin.  This  con- 
dition, which  is  seen  almost  exclusively  in  old  gray  horses,  is  usually 
associated  with  tumor  formation.  It  is  thought  to  be  due  to  the 
breaking  down  of  red  blood-corpuscles  in  the  spleen  and  liver, 
thus  liberating  melanin  from  the  haemoglobin. 

In  what  animals  are  melanosarcomata  most  commonly  found?  De- 
scribe the  gross  appearance  of  melanosarcomata. 
Horses,  especially  gray-colored  ones.  The  tumors  usually  de- 
velop in  the  region  of  the  root  of  the  tail  and  the  anus,  although 
no  tissue  seems  to  be  exempt.  They  appear  as  small  nodules  of  a 
soft  or  hard  consistency  and  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  walnut  to 
a  man's  fist"  or  larger.  The  cut  surface  is  uniformly  black  or 
dark-brown  and  soils  the  hands  similar  to  shoe-blacking. 

Name  the  different  types  of  sarcoma.     What  tissue  does  sarcoma 
resemble  ? 
1.  Round-celled  sarcoma, 
a.  Small  round-celled. 
10 


146  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

b.  Large  round-celled. 

c.  Lymphosarcoma. 

d.  Alveolar  sarcoma. 

2.  Spindle-celled  sarcoma, 

a.  Small. 

b.  Large. 

3.  Giant-celled  sarcoma. 

4.  Melanosareoma. 

Sarcomata  resemble  embryonal  connective  tissue. 

Define  (a)  neuroma,  (b)  angioma,  (c)  myoma. 

(a)  A  tumor  composed  largely  of  nerve  substance. 

(b)  A  tumor  made  up  of  blood-vessels. 

(c)  A  tumor  made  up  of  muscular  elements. 

Classify  cysts  and  give  an  example  of  each  class. 

1.  Retention  cyst,  as  seen  in  the  kidney,  sebaceous  glands, 
mucous  glands,  etc.,  due  to  obstruction  of  the  excretory  duct. 

2.  Degeneration  cyst,  due  to  liquefaction  of  the  tissues  as  in  the 
brain,  thyroids  and  tumors. 

3.  Parasitic  cysts,  as  the  ecchinococcic  variety. 

4.  Foreign-body  cyst,  seen  when  a  bullet  or  other  foreign  body 
is  encapsulated  by  connective  tissue. 

Define  cysts  and  name  the  varieties. 

A  cyst  is  a  circumscribed  cavity,  shut  off  from  the  surrounding 
tissues,  by  a  connective-tissue  membrane  or  by  tissue  of  a  more 
complex  structure,  the  contents  of  which  differ  in  nature  from  the 
capsule.    (See  answer  to  preceding  question.) 

Blood 

Define  leucocythaemia,  polycythaemia,  phagocytosis. 

Leucocythaemia,  or  leuktemia,  is  a  fatal  disease,  characterized 
by  a  marked  increase  in  the  number  of  leucocytes  in  the  blood,  to- 
gether with  enlargement  and  proliferation  of  the  lymphoid  tissue 
of  the  spleen,  lymphatic  glands  and  bone-marrow. 

Polycythaemia  is  an  increase  in  the  number  of  red  blood-cor- 
puscles in  the  blood. 

Phagocytosis  is  the  term  applied  to  the  destruction  of  bacteria 
in  the  body  by  the  phagocytes.  (Phagocytes  are  certain  cells,  chielly 
leucocytes,  which  possess  the  power  of  taking  up  and  destroying 
bacteria  by  intracellular  digestion.) 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  147 

What  is  leucocytosis  ?     Enumerate  the  diseases  with  their  stages  in 
which  leucocytosis  may  be  expected. 
Leucocj'iosis  is  a  temporary  increase  in  the  number  of  leucocytes 
in  the  blood.    It  occurs  in : 

Pneumonia,  variola  (suppurative  stage),  pyaemia,  septictemia, 
actinomycosis,  trichinosis,  glanders,  articular  rheumatism  (acute), 
cerebrospinal  meningitis  (suppurative  stage),  endometritis,  peri- 
carditis, peritonitis,  pleurisy,  erysipelas,  dermatitis,  gangrenous 
conditions,  abscesses  of  all  kinds  and  situations,  etc. 

State  the  relation  of  leucocytosis  to  phagocytosis.     How  may  phago- 
cytosis be  stimulated? 
Phagocytosis  is  accomplished  principally  by  leucocytes,  there- 
fore leucocj^osis  greatly  augments  phagocj^tic  activity. 

Phagocytosis  may  be  stimulated  by  injecting  products  of  bac- 
terial growth  into  an  animal. 

Define  leukaemia  and  ischaemia. 

Leukaemia,  same  as  leucocythsemia.    See  above. 
IscliEemia  is  a  local  anasmia. 

State  the  difference  between  an  ante-mortem  and  a  post-mortem  blood- 
clot  such  as  is  found  in  the  blood. 

An  ante-mortem  clot  is  a  yellowish  translucent  mass  resembling 
chicken  fat,  clotting  occurred  slowly.  A  post-mortem  clot  is  a 
dark-red,  homogeneous,  gelatinous  mass;  the  blood  coagidated 
quickly  before  the  red  blood-corpuscles  had  time  to  settle. 

Bones  and  Joints 

Describe  the  reparative  process  of  a  fractured  long  bone. 

At  first  hemorrhage  occurs  in  the  marrow  and  at  the  line  of 
fracture,  then  occurs  hypereemia  and  cellular  infiltration  of  the 
periosteum,  marrow  and  bone ;  cell  division  and  proliferation  of 
the  marrow,  periosteum  and  vascular  endothelium;  deposition  of 
calcium  salts  and  formation  of  bone  and  cartilage.  The  name 
callus  is  applied  to  the  new-formed  tissue,  and  is  distinguished  as 
periosteal  and  myelogenous. 

Give  the  pathology  of  osteoporosis. 

The  bones,  especially  those  of  the  lower  jaw,  are  thickened.  The 
bones  of  the  extremities  and  articulations  are  often  enlarged.  In 
some  cases  the  articular  cartilages  become  ulcerated.  The  bony 
cortex  is  thin,  spongy,  brittle  and  easily  fractured.  There  is  an 
increase  in  the  vascular  and  fibrous  tissues  without  any  increase 


148  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

in  bone  substance.  If  cachexia  is  present,  the  bone-marrow  is  pale, 
gelatinous,  and  even  watery.  Anaemia,  cachexia  and  oedematous 
infiltration  of  the  body  is  present.  Atrophy  and  fatty  degeneration 
of  the  muscles  attached  to  the  affected  bones.  Recent  or  old  frac- 
tures, showing  callous  formation,  may  be  present. 

What  are  the  lesions  of  arthritis  chronica  deformans  tarsi  (spavin)  ? 

The  lesions,  confined  usually  to  the  articular  cartilage  of  the 
cuneiform  and  of  the  upper  part  of  the  metatarsus,  though  some- 
times the  scaphoid  and  other  bones  of  the  hock  are  involved,  con- 
sist of  ulceration,  abrasions,  and  at  the  borders  of  the  articular 
surfaces,  rugged,  uneven  swellings  produced  by  the  thickening  of 
the  articular  cartilage  which  is  ossified.  Under  the  microscope,  the 
intercellular  substance  is  seen  to  be  fibrillated  and  the  cartilage  cells 
to  be  undergoing  multiplication.  The  synovial  membrane  is  thick- 
ened and  vascular.  Partial  or  complete  ankylosis  of  the  articular 
surfaces  and  ossification  of  the  ligaments  are  seen. 

What  is  caries? 

The  molecular  decay  or  death  of  bone  (teeth)  in  which  it  becomes 
softened,  discolored  and  porous.  It  corresponds  to  ulceration  in 
soft  tissues. 

Give  the  causes  of  dental  caries. 

By  the  fermentation  of  starchy  foods  in  the  mouth,  brought 
about  through  the  action  of  bacteria,  acids  are  produced  which 
soften  the  enamel  and  permit  the  entrance  of  other  bacteria  into 
the  dentin,  producing  caries. 

Define  (a)  periostitis,  (b)  periarthritis,  (c)  arthritis. 

(a)  Inflammation  of  the  covering  of  bone  (periosteum). 

(b)  Inflammation  of  the  structures  surrounding  a  joint. 

(c)  Inflammation  of  a  joint,  characterized  by  great  pain,  heat, 
redness  and  swelling. 

Heart  and  Blood-vessels 

Name  lesions  that  may  be  found  in  chronic  heart  disease. 

Thickening  of  the  endocardium,  borders  of  valves,  and  of  the 
chords  tendinjE.  Insufficiency  of  the  valves.  Heart  wall  thickened, 
solid,  and  contains  grayish-white  spots  or  streaks  (scars).  Fatty 
degeneration  of  muscle  fibres. 

Give  the  causes  and  lesions  of  cardiac  hypertrophy. 

Causes:  severe  work,  disturbance  in  circulation  requiring  more 
force  in  the  heart  action,  as  chronic  interstitial  nephritis,  lung  dis- 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  149 

eases,  valvular  diseases,  etc.,  tumors  or  adherent  pericardium  creat- 
ing pressure  from  without,  disease  of  the  heart  muscle  itself. 

Lesions :  increased  volume  and  weight  of  the  heart ;  walls  thick- 
ened, hard  and  firm. 

What  pathological  changes  may  follovy  mitral  stenosis? 

Hypertrophy  of  the  left  auricle,  pulmonary  congestion,  hyper- 
trophy of  the  right  ventricle  and  right  auricle ;  pulmonary  oedema, 
bronchial  catarrh  and  hepatic  congestion. 

Describe  the  lesions  of  pericarditis. 

Acute  form:  fibrinous  membranes  on  the  pericardium;  fluid 
exudate,  clear  (or  cloudy  from  pus),  in  varying  amounts  distends 
the  pericardial  sac.  Passive  hypersemia  of  the  lungs  and  liver  and 
cedematous  infiltrations  may  occur. 

Chronic  form:  connective-tissue  proliferation,  thickening  and 
adhesions  of  the  pericardial  sac. 

What  is  the  difference  between  active  and  passive  congestion? 

Active  congestion  arises  from  an  increase  in  the  arterial  supply 
on  account  of  the  dilatation  of  the  lumen  of  the  blood-vessels  to  the 
part.  Passive  congestion  arises  through  a  retardation  or  obstruc- 
tion of  the  flow  of  blood  from  the  veins  and  a  passive  yielding  of 
the  vessel-walls  to  intravascular  pressure. 

Define  (a)  embolism,  (b)  aneurism,  (c)  lymphangioma,  (d)  myocar- 
ditis. 

(a)  The  plugging  of  a  blood-vessel  by  a  clot  or  obstruction 
which  has  been  brought  to  its  place  by  the  blood-current. 

(b)  A  sac  formed  by  the  dilatation  of  the  walls  of  an  artery  and 
filled  with  blood.  It  may  be  a  true  aneurism  which  contains  one 
or  more  of  the  coats  of  the  artery,  or  a  false  aneurism  in  which  all 
of  the  coats  are  absent,  the  blood  being  retained  by  the  surrounding 
tissues. 

(c)  A  tumor  composed  of  dilated  lymphatic  vessels. 

(d)  Inflammation  of  the  heart  muscle. 

Discuss  verminous  aneurisms  of  the  cceliac  or  mesenteric  arteries  of 
the  horse. 
They  are  due  to  the  larvae  of  the  sclerostoma  equinum  which 
enter  the  blood-stream  from  the  intestines,  are  carried  to  the  cceliac 
artery  and  enter  the  vasa  vasorum  of  the  same  and  cause  infarction 
in  the  media  of  the  vessel,  and  then  meso-arteritis,  or  peri-  and 
endarteritis.  This  leads  to  formation  of  a  thrombus  and  narrowing 
of  the  lumen  of  the  vessel,  providing  dilatation  is  not  commensurate 
with  the  diminution  in  calibre.    The  inflamed  vessel-wall,  losing  its 


150  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

tone,  yields  more  readily  to  the  internal  tension  and  as  a  result  an 
enormous  distention  and  thickening  of  the  wall  occurs. 

Respiratory  Organs 

What  pathologic  changes  occur  in  the  air-cells  during  pulmonary 
hepatization? 
Hyperaemia,  smaller  or  larger  hemorrhagic  foci,  extravasation 
of  blood-serum  with  white  and  red  blood-corpuscles  into  the  alveoli. 

Describe  the  post-mortem  appearance  of  each  stage  of  pneumonia. 

First  stage  (congestive)  :  Capillaries  distended  and  the  alveoli 
filled  with  serous  fluid  containing  endothelial  and  red  blood-cells. 

Second  stage  (red  hepatization)  :  Fibrinous  exudate  and  red 
blood-cells  in  the  air  sacs,  coagulation  of  same ;  lung  is  consolidated, 
dark-red  and  friable,  does  not  collapse  when  thorax  is  opened  and 
shows  the  imprint  of  the  ribs;  sinks  in  water;  the  cut  surface 
appears  granular  from  the  projection  of  fibrin  plugs. 

Third  stage  (gray  hepatization)  :  The  red  cells  are  gradually 
destroyed  and  absorbed,  and  leucocytes  predominate,  giving  the 
cut  surface  a  gray  appearance. 

Fourth  stage  (resolution)  :  The  exudate  has  undergone  fatty 
degeneration  and  liquefaction;  the  cut  surface  is  smooth  and 
exudes  a  whitish  fluid;  the  lung  is  approaching  normal  color  and 
condition. 

Give  the  post-mortem  appearance  of  gangrene  of  the  lungs. 

In  the  anterior  and  inferior  portions  of  the  lungs,  gangrenous 
foci  are  found,  which  appear  dirty-brown,  red  or  yellowish-brown, 
and  consist  of  a  soft  mass  of  a  very  disagreeable,  sweetish,  foul  odor. 
The  bronchi  contain  liquefied  or  soft  masses  of  a  similar  color  and 
smell.  The  mucosa  of  the  bronchi  is  slate-gray  in  color.  The 
internal  surface  of  the  cavities  formed  is  ragged  and  covered  with 
a  friable,  stinking,  mushy  mass.  If  the  cavity  is  near  the  pleura 
or  breaks  through  the  same,  purulent  pleurisy  may  be  present. 
Between  the  foci  the  pulmonary  tissue  shows  a  catarrhal  or  fibrinous 
pneumonia. 

Describe  the  post-mortem  lesions  of  pulmonary  emphysema  (heaves). 
The  lungs  are  enlarged,  soft,  less  elastic  and  i)aler  in  color. 
Their  surface  often  shows  the  imprint  of  the  ribs.  Air  vesicles  can 
be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  Between  the  vesicles  are  large  air 
spaces  due  to  rupture  of  the  walls.  These  air  spaces  often  produce 
bulging  of  the  serous  coat  in  various  places  when  beneath  the 
pleura. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  151 

Give  the  post-mortem  appearance  of  acute  diffused  pleuritis. 

HyperEBinia,  surface  of  the  pleura  is  rough,  lustreless  and  dry. 
The  exudate  composed  of  blood-corpuscles  and  fibrin  covers  the 
surface  of  the  pleura  like  a  veil.  In  some  cases  a  serofibrinous  exu- 
date covers  the  surface  with  a  thicker,  friable,  moist,  loose  mem- 
brane. Purulent  and  hemorrhagic  exudates  may  be  present.  The 
pleuritic  cavity  may  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  a  serous 
fluid  which  compresses  the  lungs. 

Describe  the  post-mortem  appearance  of  the  lungs  in  pleuropneumonia. 
(It  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  interrogator  is  referring  to 
contagious  pleuropneumonia.)  This  disease  is  characterized  by 
interstitial  pneumonia  with  secondary  hepatization  of  the  lungs  and 
an  exudative  pleuritis.  The  cut  surface  shows  a  pale  yellow  net- 
work formed  by  an  increase  in  the  interlobular  connective  tissue; 
a  clear  serous  fluid  oozes  from  the  cut  surface.  Between  the  network 
of  connective  tissue  the  lung  tissue  is  hepatized.  The  bronchial 
walls  show  serous  infiltration  and  their  lumen  contains  a  fibrinous 
exudate.  The  pleura  is  lustreless,  injected  and  covered  with  a 
veil-like  exudate  of  fibrin ;  a  large  amount  of  exudate  in  the  pleural 
cavity. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  post-mortem  lesions  of  hydrothorax. 

For  symptoms,  see  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs,  page  191. 

Lesions:  A  large  amount  of  a  clear,  light  yellow,  or  slightly 
turbid  fluid  in  the  thoracic  cavity.  The  lungs  show  compression 
to  an  extent  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  the  fluid  present.  The 
pleura  may  be  normal  or  thickened  and  cloudy.  More  or  less 
congestion  present. 

What  is  atelectasis? 

An  airless  condition  of  the  lungs  seen  in  the  foetus ;  also  seen  in 
later  life  due  to  pressure  of  a  pleural  effusion  or  blocking  of  the 
smaller  bronchial  tubes  with  mucus. 

Describe  the  structural  changes  in  the  nervous  and  muscular  tissue  in 
a  case  of  roaring. 
The  recurrent  nerve  is  reduced  in  size  and  gray  in  color,  indicat- 
ing degeneration.     The  posterior  crico-arytenoid,  the  lateral  crico- 
arytenoid and  the  transverse  arytenoid  muscles  show  pale  yellow 
streaks  and  degeneration  of  their  fibres. 

Describe  the  appearance  of  the  lungs  in  bronchopneumonia. 

This  is  a  lobular  affection,  with  scattered  areas  of  consolidation. 
These  areas  are  not  as  firm  as  in  croupous  pneumonia.  The  cut 
surface  is  grayish-red  or  grayish-yellow  and  not  granular,   but 


152  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

smooth  and  moist;  on  pressure  a  frothy  serum  exudes  from  the 
healthy  portion  and  a  grayish-yellow  fluid  from  the  diseased  areas. 
The  lobules  stand  out  prominently  and  may  contain  pus  foci. 

Abdominal  Organs 

Describe  the  post-mortem  appearance  of  the  intestines  in  catarrhal 
enteritis. 
Acute  form:  The  intestinal  mucosa  is  reddened,  swollen  and 
covered  with  slimy  mucus  mixed  with  dead  epithelial  cells.  Small 
hemorrhages  may  be  present.  The  submucosa  is  infiltrated  with 
serum.  The  villi  are  swollen  and  crowded  together  giving  a  velvety 
appearance.  Peyer's  patches  are  swollen  and  may  discharge  pus 
and  even  become  ulcerated. 

Chronic  form:  The  mucosa  is  darkly  pigmented  (sometimes 
pale),  thickened  and  covered  with  an  excess  of  mucus;  the  thicken- 
ing may  extend  into  the  submucosa,  giving  a  firm  leathery  feeling 
to  the  part.  The  villi  are  hypertrophied  and  Peyer's  patches  con- 
gested and  ulcerated. 

Describe  enteroliths. 

These  are  hard,  dense,  stony  concretions  found  in  the  intestines 
and  range  in  weight  from  one  ounce  to  25  pounds.  They  resemble 
billiard  balls,  or  sometimes  are  pyramidal  in  shape  from  being 
worn  off  on  the  sides.  Their  principal  constituent  is  ammonio- 
magnesium  phosphate  which  is  largely  derived  from  wheat  and  rye 
bran  feeds.  Enteroliths  are  important  because  of  obstructions  and 
erosions  which  they  produce  in  the  intestines. 

Give  the  pathology  of  peritonitis. 

The  peritoneum  is  congested,  dull  and  opaque;  fibrinous  mem- 
branes cover  the  surface.  Serous  fluid  may  be  present  in  large 
amounts  (40  litres)  in  the  peritoneal  cavity;  later  this  fluid  may 
be  mixed  with  fibrin  flocculi  and  pus.  Acute  peritonitis  may  be- 
come chronic  with  the  development  of  connective  tissue  under  the 
fibrinous  membrane.  In  this  case  the  peritoneum  becomes  thick- 
ened and  the  surface  of  the  organs  is  covered  with  thick  layers  of 
connective  tissue. 

Describe  the  appearance  of  a  cirrhotic  liver. 

In  atrophic  cirrhosis  there  is  an  increase  in  connective  tissue 
with  compression  of  the  parenchyma.  The  tissue  is  of  a  tough, 
leather-like  consistency  and  grates  when  cut.  The  organ  is  reduced 
in  size,  the  surface  irregular  and  granular  or  nodular;  the  serous 
covering  is  thickened. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  153 

In  hypertrophic  cirrhosis,  the  liver  is  enlarged,  the  cut  surface 
as  well  as  the  outer  surface  appears  smooth  or  slightly  granular 
and  greenish-yellow  in  color;  the  consistency  is  hard,  due  to  the 
increase  in  the  interlobular  connective  tissue ;  there  is  no  tendency 
toward  contraction. 

Give  the  pathology  of  icterus. 

There  is  a  yellow  discoloration  of  the  skin  and  mucous  mem- 
branes, particularly  noticeable  in  the  conjunctiva;  the  urine  is 
brownish  or  greenish  in  color  and  all  of  the  organs  of  the  body, 
except  nerve  tissue,  may  be  stained  yellow.  The  bile  capillaries 
of  the  liver  are  distended  with  bile,  and  pigmentation  of  the  liver- 
cells  is  noted.  Constipation  is  present  and  the  stools  are  dry,  hard, 
pale  and  fetid. 

In  what  diseases  does  enlargement  of  the  spleen  occur? 

Anthrax,  Texas  fever,  piroplasmosis  of  dogs,  and  leukasmia. 

Differentiate  an  ante-mortem  from  a  post-mortem  tympanites  in 
bovines  at  autopsy. 
In  ante-mortem  tympanites,  the  lungs  are  compressed,  dark-red 
and  full  of  blood.  The  veins  of  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue 
are  filled  to  their  utmost  with  dark-red,  possibly  uncoagulated  blood. 
Signs  of  death  from  suffocation,  such  as  striate  and  punctate  hemor- 
rhages into  the  serous  membranes,  especially  in  the  pleura  and  peri- 
cardium, are  seen.  In  post-mortem  tympanites,  none  of  these  con- 
ditions are  found.  The  blood  is  evenly  distributed,  except  perhaps 
a  hypostatic  congestion  in  the  side  on  which  the  cadaver  lies. 

Genito-xjrinary  Organs 

Define  (a)  haematuria,  (b)  haemoglobinuria. 

(a)  Blood  in  the  urine. 

(b)  Haemoglobin  in  the  urine  without  blood-corpuscles. 

Name  the  different  varieties  of  urinary  casts  and  state  the  conditions 
in  which  each  is  found. 

Casts  are  albuminous  exudates  from  the  blood,  with  the  addition 
of  transformed  or  destroyed  epithelium.  There  are  six  varieties 
of  true  casts:  1,  hyaline;  2,  epithelial;  3,  blood;  4,  granular; 
5,  fatty;  6,  waxy. 

The  first  three  are  found  in  acute  parenchymatous  nephritis. 
Granular  casts  are  found  in  chronic  parenchymatous  nephritis. 
Fatty  and  waxy  casts  are  secondary  products  and  only  found  in 
nephritis  of  long  standing  (chronic  interstitial). 


154  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  gross  pathology  of  (a)  acute  parenchymatous  nephritis, 
(b)  chronic  interstitial  nephritis. 

(a)  Kidneys  are  soft,  friable  and  the  capsule  strips  easily.  The 
cut  surface  is  streaked  with  hypera?mic  vessels,  especially  in  the 
medulla ;  in  the  cortex  the  Malpighian  corpuscles  stand  out  prom- 
inently. 

(b)  The  kidney  is  small  and  its  surface  irregular;  the  capsule 
is  thickened  and  strips  with  difficulty,  owing  to  the  productive 
growth  and  extension  of  same  into  the  substance  of  the  gland. 
On  section  the  substance  is  firm  and  pale  in  color. 

Give  the  pathology  of  a  cystic  ovary. 

In  a  large  majority  of  cases,  cystic  ovaries  follow  peri-oophoritis, 
which  thickens  the  capsule  and  prevents  the  ovisac  from  rupturing. 
The  peri-oophoritis  may  be  caused  by  extension  of  infection  or 
inflammation  in  cases  of  endometritis,  granular  venereal  disease, 
etc.  A  small  number  of  cases  may  be  attributed  to  a  persistent 
corpus  luteum.  The  enlarged  ovary  is  uniformly  rounded  and 
smooth  or  it  may  be  marked  by  irregular  bulgings,  giving  it  a  lobu- 
lated  appearance.  The  organ  is  very  vascular  and  covered  by  the 
thickened  peritoneum.  One  or  more  closely  adherent  cysts  of 
various  sizes,  containing  a  clear,  yellow  or  brownish-red  liquid, 
may  be  seen. 

What  is  your  idea  of  the  pathology  of  azoturia? 

This  disease  is  due  to  an  auto-intoxication.  The  lesions  are 
characterized  by  the  following  conditions:  The  lumbar,  psoas  and 
gluteus  muscles  appear  swollen  and  gray  or  grayish-yellow  in  color 
like  fish-meat  or  boiled  meat.  Occasionally,  these  muscles  are  rup- 
tured and  contain  hemorrhages.  They  are  friable  and  tear  easily. 
The  kidneys  show  cloudy  swelling  and  even  severe  parenchymatous 
degeneration.  The  heart  muscle  shows  the  same  changes  as  the 
muscles  but  in  a  lesser  degree.  The  bladder  contains  brownish-red 
or  coffee-colored  urine.  In  cases  of  long  standing,  lesions  of  septi- 
caemia, due  to  decubital  gangrene,  are  seen. 

Name  five  diseases  that  may  affect  the  udder  of  the  cow. 

Mastitis,  tuberculosis,  actinomycosis,  carcinoma,  eczema. 

Define  (a)  oophoritis,  (b)  orchitis,  (c)  metritis. 

(a)  Indammation  of  the  ovary. 

(b)  Inflammation  of  the  testicle. 

(c)  Inflammation  of  the  uterus. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  155 

Nervous  System 

Define  (a)  phrenitis,  (b)  meningitis,  (c)  pachymeningitis,  (d)  lepto- 
meningitis, (e)  apoplexy. 

(a)  Intlammatioii  of  the  brain. 

(b)  Inflammatiou  of  the  meninges,  the  covering  of  the  brain 
and  cord. 

(c)  Inflammation  of  the  dura  mater,  the  outer  covering  of  the 
brain  and  cord. 

(d)  Inflammation  of  the  pia  and  arachnoid  membranes. 

(e)  Paralysis  resulting  from  rupture  of  a  cerebral  blood-vessel. 

Give  the  pathologic  changes  in  the  brain  o£  a  horse  suffering  with 
chronic  hydrocephalus  (dummy). 
There  is  a  dilatation  of  the  lateral  ventricles  and  anterior  part 
of  the  third  ventricle  by  an  excessive  amount  of  fluid.  The  base  of 
the  cerebrum  and  the  olfactory  lobes  have  their  internal  cavity 
distended  so  that  they  appear  like  bladders  of  fluid.  The  cerebral 
hemispheres  are  flattened  and  their  convolutions  nearly  effaced. 
There  is  degeneration  and  softening  of  the  compressed  nervous  tissue 
and  anaemia  of  the  brain. 

What  are  the  post-mortem  appearances  of  anaemia  of  the  brain? 

Meninges  are  pale  and  their  vessels  collapsed.  The  cortex  is 
pale  and  the  line  of  demarcation  between  it  and  the  white  matter 
is  indistinct.    On  section,  minute  points  of  blood  are  seen. 

What  faulty  conditions  in  the  food  tend  to  produce  paralysis? 
Moulds,  rusts,  smuts  and  fermentation. 

Muscles 

What  parasite  affects  the  muscles  of  hogs  ?  Name  the  disease  and  state 
the  lesions  produced. 
Trichina  spiralis  produces  trichinosis.  The  parasites-  invade  the 
muscles  and  become  encysted  therein  in  the  shape  of  an  oval  which 
is  grayish-white  in  appearance.  Within  this  oval  body,  which  is 
only  one-twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  the  parasite  is  coiled  up 
in  a  spiral  shape.  The  muscle  fibres  lose  their  diagonal  striation; 
the  sarcolemma  is  dilated,  covering  the  cyst;  the  connective  tissue 
is  infiltrated  and  the  capillaries  are  distended.  The  cut  surface  of 
the  muscle  is  cloudy,  a  pale-gray  color  and  transparent. 

Eye 

Describe  the  pathologic  changes  occurring  in  an  attack  of  periodic 
ophthalmia. 
The  conjunctiva  is  injected.     The  injected  blood-vessels  of  the 


156  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

cornea  have  an  aborescent  appearance.  Back  of  the  cornea  and  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  eye  is  a  fibrinopurulent 
exudate.  The  iris  is  swollen  and  adherent  to  the  lens  or  cornea, 
constituting  synechia.  There  is  swelling  and  tenderness  of  the 
outer  rim  of  the  cornea  (cyclitis).  Infiltration  of  the  lens  with 
lymph  renders  it  opaque.  Exudates  beneath  the  retina  detach  it 
from  the  choroid.  The  whole  condition  is  often  spoken  of  as 
' '  iridocyclochoroiditis. ' ' 

Skin 
Give  the  pathology  of  acne. 

Acne  is  an  inflammation  of  the  sebaceous  glands  and  hair  fol- 
licles. It  appears  as  small  nodules  varying  in  size  from  a  millet 
seed  to  a  pea.  These  nodules  may  contain  serum  or  pus  and  the 
hair  covering  them  falls  out.  Scabs  may  cover  the  nodules  which 
upon  being  removed  leave  a  raw  ulcerating  spot  beneath.  Chronic 
indurative  dermatitis  often  follows  or  accompanies  this  condition. 

What  is  dandruff? 

Dandruff  is  an  exudation  product,  seen  as  small  bran-like  scales, 
occurring  in  superficial  inflammation  of  the  skin  with  an  excessive 
sebaceous  secretion. 

Name  the  stages  of  eczema. 

Erythematous,  papular,  vesicular,  moist,  pustular  and  scaly. 

Name  the  pathologic  conditions  that  may  affect  the  equine  foot. 

Pododermatitis,  including  corns  and  canker,  navicular  bursitis, 
fracture  of  the  navicular  bone,  ossification  of  the  lateral  cartilage 
(side-bone),  necrosis  of  the  lateral  cartilage  (quittor),  laminitis, 
inflammation  of  the  ligaments  of  the  coronet  joint,  ringbone,  etc. 

Give  the  pathology  of  acute  and  chronic  laminitis. 

Acute:  Hyperemia  of  the  sensitive  lamins;  exudation,  loosen- 
ing the  hoof  from  the  matrix ;  the  exudate  may  consist  of  serum,  or 
serum  and  pus.  The  sole  may  be  "dropped"  owing  to  descent  of 
the  OS  pedis.  Separation  of  the  hoof  from  the  coronary  band  may 
occur  and  allow  the  exudate  to  escape. 

Chronic:  The  hoof  wall  shows  a  number  of  concentric  rings, 
producing  irregularities  of  same ;  the  sole  is  * '  dropped ' '  and  the  os 
pedis  displaced  downward ;  the  coronet  joint  shows  abnormal  dorsal 
flexion.  The  white  line  is  greatly  thickened  and  a  thin  purulent 
exudate  covers  its  surface.  The  laminai  are  not  as  hypera3mic  as  in 
the  acute  form. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  157 

Infectious  Diseases 

What  tissue  changes  may  be  found  in  chronic  glanders  and  farcy? 

Lesions  are  most  frequently  found  on  the  respiratory  mucous 
membrane,  in  the  lungs,  lymph-glands,  spleen  and  skin,  and  occur 
in  two  forms,  (1)  as  circumscribed  nodules  with  the  formation 
of  ulcers  and  cicatrices;  and  (2)  as  diffuse  or  infiltrated  lesions. 

The  nodules  resemble  somewhat  the  neoplasms  of  tuberculosis; 
they  show  cell  proliferation  in  nests  in  a  fibrous  stroma,  varying 
in  size  from  a  grain  of  sand  upward ;  have  a  central  degeneration 
containing  fatty  debris ;  open  on  the  surface  forming  ulcers,  showing 
a  grayish  necrotic  centre  and  surrounded  by  a  ragged  border ;  cica- 
trices may  form.  In  the  lungs  the  nodules  give  rise  to  a  lobular 
pneumonia,  interlobular  and  peribronchial  inflammation;  the  cen- 
tral mass  becomes  yellowish  and  caseated  from  glandular  and  fatty 
degeneration;  the  periphery  may  be  bounded  by  a  dense  fibroid 
envelope  or  show  only  an  area  of  congestion.  In  the  skin  there 
is  an  infiltration  and  proliferation  of  lymphoid  cells  which  cause 
an  eruption  of  rounded  papules  that  degenerate  and  soften  and 
form  superficial  ulcers  (farcy).  Sometimes  the  nodules  undergo 
fibroid  degeneration  and  fail  to  ulcerate ;  diffuse  engorgements  and 
extensive  swellings  occur  in  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue,  due 
to  infiltration  of  lymph ;  hyperplasia  of  lymph- vessels. 

The  regional  lymphatic  glands  are  always  involved,  showing 
hypertrophy,  congestion,  serous  infiltration  and  cell  proliferation, 
and  often  caseated  centres.  The  spleen  and  liver  may  be  the  seat 
of  nodules. 

Describe  the  appearance  of  a  typical  nasal  ulcer  in  glanders. 

At  the  first  the  ulcers  are  round,  regular  and  smoothly  bordered, 
but  later,  as  a  result  of  progressive  tissue  destruction,  they  become 
irregular  with  raised  borders,  ragged  edges,  pale-yellow,  with  a 
lardaceous  base  covered  with  pus  and  detritus  or,  eventually,  a 
brownish  crust.  Larger  ulcers  are  formed  by  the  coalescence  of 
small  ones.  The  shallow  ulcers  may  heal  without  any  visible 
changes,  but  the  deeper  ones,  after  granulating,  leave  a  radiating, 
star-shaped  cicatrix. 

What  are  the  known  lesions  of  rabies? 

Congestion  of  fauces,  pharynx  and  larynx;  cyanosis  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth ;  foreign  bodies,  but  no  food  in  the 
stomach,  and  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  latter  is  congested  or 
actively  inflamed.  The  foregoing  conditions  are  usually  found  in 
all  cases  of  rabies,  but  cannot  be  called  specific  of  the  disease.    The 


158  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

following  are  specific:  brain  congestion;  Negri  bodies  in  the  gan- 
glion cells  of  the  hippocampus,  and  other  brain  cells;  proliferation 
of  the  endothelial  cells  in  the  capsules  of  the  Gasserian  and  plexi- 
form  ganglia. 

What  is  the  pathology  of  foot  and  mouth  disease? 

In  mild  cases  the  lesions  are  slight  and  may  be  overlooked. 
In  more  severe  cases,  hypera?mia  and  oedema  are  noted.  Catarrhal 
rhinitis  and  pneumonia,  and  dilatation  of  the  heart ;  the  heart 
muscle  may  show  degeneration  and  hemorrhagic  infarcts.  In 
some  cases  hemorrhagic  gastro-enteritis  is  a  prominent  lesion; 
ulcers  in  the  stomachs  of  cattle;  these  ulcers  rarely  extend  deeper 
than  the  mucosa.  Vesicles  are  seen  on  the  feet,  between  the  digits, 
and  may  extend  into  the  deeper  structures,  causing  sloughing  of  the 
hoof  and  necrosis  of  the  bone. 

Describe  the  appearance  of  a  case  of  infectious  lymphangitis. 

(All  cases  of  lymphangitis  are  probably  of  infectious  origin. 
Presuming  that  the  interrogator  refers  to  the  so-called  "epizootic 
lymphangitis,"  the  following  answer  is  given.) 

It  is  characterized  by  red  exuberant  skin  nodules  (buttons, 
boils)  which  burst  and  discharge  a  thick,  creamy,  yellowish  or 
bloody  pus.  The  neighboring  lymph  plexus  swells  into  corded  lines, 
with  nodules  or  abscesses  at  irregular  intervals.  The  infection  ex- 
tends to,  and  implicates  the  lymph-glands  of  the  region  affected  and 
pya?mia  may  follow.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a  yeast  fungus, 
cryptococcus  farciminosus,  also  known  as  saccharomyces  farci- 
minosus. 

A  disease,  caused  by  a  sporothrix,  called  "  sporothricosis, "  pre- 
sents practically  the  same  picture  and  is  frequently  mistaken  for 
the  former  disease.  Epizootic  lymphangitis  is  unknown  in  this 
country. 

Give  the  post-mortem  lesions  of  Texas  fever. 

Putrefaction  of  carcass  occurs  rapidly.  Icteric  coloration  of 
mucous  membranes  and  tissues  due  to  ha^moglobiua'mia.  Ticks  may 
be  found  on  the  body  and  occasionally  tufts  of  hair  matted  with 
blood.  Hemorrhages  beneath  the  skin  and  into  the  endocardium. 
The  right  ventricle  is  distended  with  blood  and  the  left  ventricle 
contracted.  Liver  enlarged  from  congestion;  the  spleen  engorged 
with  blood ;  the  kidneys  edematous  and  blood-stained.  The  bladder 
is  petechiated  and  contains  bloody  urine.  Congestion  of  the  mucosa 
of  the  digestive  tract.  The  blood  thin  and  watery  with  ha^moglo- 
binaimia  present. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  159 

Describe  the  post-mortem  lesions  of  anthrax. 

In  rapidly  fatal  cases,  changes  in  the  blood  and  tissues  are  often 
so  little  marked,  that,  after  the  engorged  spleen  and  infiltrated 
internal  organs  are  removed,  the  carcass  appears  fit  for  consump- 
tion as  food.  In  more  protracted  cases,  the  blood  is  dark,  tissues 
brown  or  yellow,  the  heart  muscle  pale;  liver  enlarged,  soft,  pale 
and  hemorrhagic;  spleen  greatly  enlarged  or  ruptured;  lymph- 
glands  hyperffimic;  serosa  petechiated;  the  bacterium  anthrax  is 
readily  demonstrated  in  blood  smears. 

Describe  the  post-mortem  lesions  of  hemorrhagic  septicaemia. 

Widely  distributed  areas  of  hemorrhage,  varying  in  size  from  a 
pin  point  to  several  inches  in  diameter.  Blood  extravasations  in 
the  subcutem  and  intramuscular  tissues,  in  the  lungs,  stomach  and 
intestinal  walls,  lymph-glands,  endocardium,  myocardium,  and  peri- 
cardial sac.  The  spleen  is  usually  normal  except,  perhaps,  a  few 
hemorrhagic  areas  on  its  surface.  The  central  nervous  system  may 
occasionally  show  hemorrhages,  especially  in  the  dura.  In  animals 
recently  dead,  the  blood  is  lighter  in  color  than  normal.  When 
decomposition  occurs,  the  blood  is  black  and  tarry,  but  reddens 
after  exposure  to  the  air.  Cultures  from  the  tissues  reveal  the 
causative  factor,  bacterium  bovisepticus. 

What  tissues  are  most  commonly  affected  by  tuberculosis? 

Lungs,  liver,  intestines,  generative  organs  and  the  lymphatic 
glands  adjoining  these  organs,  especially  the  mesenteric,  portal, 
mediastinal  and  those  about  the  head;  serous  membranes — peri- 
toneum, pleura,  meninges  and  synovial. 

Describe  a  miliary  tubercle. 

The  term  "miliary  tubercle"  was  originally  applied  to  tubercles 
which  approximated  in  size  a  millet  seed,  but  now  is  applied  to 
various  sizes  of  new-formed  tuberculous  nodules,  larger  or  smaller, 
which  show  a  central  necrotic  mass  of  one  or  more  giant-cells  sur- 
rounded by  a  proliferation  of  epitheloid  cells  and  outside  of  this  a 
collection  of  lymphocytes.  It  appears  as  a  gray,  translucent  body 
and,  in  properly  stained  specimens,  the  tubercle  bacillus  may  be 
seen.  As  the  central  necrotic  mass  increases  in  size,  it  becomes 
caseated  or  calcified  and  a  connective-tissue  stroma  of  a  fibrous 
nature  may  encapsulate  the  lesion;  it  then  becomes  an  old,  yellow, 
or  crude  tubercle. 


160  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

Name  three  characteristic  lesions  of  each  of  the  following  diseases; 
hog  cholera,  anthrax,  glanders. 
Hog  cholera :  button  ulcers  in  the  intestines,  hemorrhagic  areas 
and  enlargement  of  the  spleen  and  lymph-glands. 

Anthrax:  Enlarged  spleen,  hemorrhages,  black  tarry  blood, 
showing  little  tendency  to  coagulate. 

Glanders :  Typical  nodules  in  lungs,  ulcers  and  star-shaped  cica- 
trices on  the  nasal  mucous  membrane,  hyperplasia  of  lymph-glands. 

Bacteriology 

Classify  bacteria  and  give  the  name  of  the  classification  used. 
Migula  's  classification : 
I.  Lower  bacteria. 

A.  Coccacege. 

1.  Streptococcus. 

2.  Micrococcus. 

3.  Sarcina. 

4.  Planocoecus. 

5.  Planosarcina. 

B.  Bacteriacege. 

1.  Bacterium. 

2.  Bacillus. 

3.  Pseudomonas. 

C.  Spirillaceae. 

1.  Spirosoma. 

2.  Microspira. 

3.  Spirillum. 

4.  Spiroch^eta. 
II.  Higher  bacteria, 

A.  Chlamydobacteriacese. 

1.  Streptothrix. 

2.  Phragmidothrix. 

3.  Crenothrix. 

4.  Cladothrix. 

5.  Thiothrix. 

B.  Beggiatoceaj. 

1.  Beggiatoa. 

Define  (a)  spore,  (b)  flagella,  (c)  complement. 

(a)  The  reproductive  element  of  bacteria.  Spores  are  very  resist- 
ant to  the  influence  of  temperature  and  the  action  of  chemical  agents. 

(b)  Whip-like  processes  attached  to  the  ends  of,  or  all  over, 
certain  microorganisms.  They  impart  the  power  of  motility  to  the 
bacteria. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  161 

(c)  A  thermolabile  substance  present  in  normal  blood-serum, 
which  influences  the  action  of  the  immune  body.  (See  diagnosis  of 
glanders  by  the  fixation  of  the  complement  test,  page  167.) 

Differentiate  the  terms  anaerobic  and  aerobic  and  give  an  example 
of  each. 
Anaerobic  is  the  term  applied  to  bacteria  that  can  live  in  the 
absence  of  air.  There  are  two  forms,  facultative  anaerobic  which 
live  best  in  the  absence  of  air,  but  can  live  in  its  presence,  as 
B.  typhoid;  and  obligative  anaerobic  which  can  live  only  in  the 
absence  of  air,  as  B.  tetanus.  Aerobic  refers  to  bacteria  which  live 
in  the  presence  of  air.  As  with  the  anaerobic,  there  is  a  facultative 
form  which  grows  best  in  the  presence  of  air  but  can  live  in  its 
absence,  as  B.  anthracis ;  and  an  obligative  form  which  can  grow  only 
in  its  presence,  as  B.  subtilis. 

Define  the  following  terms:   (a)   saphrophytic,   (b)   pathogenic,   (c) 
asepsis,  (d)  sterile,  (e)  culture,  (f)  pure  culture. 

(a)  Bacteria  that  feed  on  dead  organic  matter  and  usually 
non-pathogenic ;  (b)  capable  of  producing  disease;  (c)  free  from 
sepsis-producing   organisms;    (d)    absolutely   free   of   all   germs; 

(e)  a  growth  of  microorganisms  in  suitable  fluids  or  other  media; 

(f)  a  growth  consisting  exclusively  of  one  species  of  bacteria. 

Name  five  common  culture-media. 

Bouillon,  agar,  blood-serum,  potato,  milk. 

Define  antiseptic  and  disinfectant  and  give  examples  of  each. 

An  antiseptic  is  an  agent  which  prevents  the  formation  of  pus. 
Examples:  corrosive  sublimate,  phenol. 

A  disinfectant  is  an  agent  which  destroys  bacteria.  Examples: 
strong  solutions  of  corrosive  sublimate,  formaldehyde,  actual 
cautery. 

Name  the  pus-producing  microorganisms. 

Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus,  albus  and  eitreous,  strepto- 
coccus pyogenes,  gonococcus  and  pneumococcus  are  the  most  com- 
mon pus-producing  microorganisms,  although  the  bacillus  of  tuber- 
culosis, typhoid,  coli  and  glanders  may  form  pus,  as  well  as  the 
actinomyces  and  certain  yeast  and  moulds,  e.g.,  aspergilli. 

What  disease  is  produced  by   (a)    Koch's  bacillus,    (b)    Nicolaier's 
bacillus,  (c)  bacillus  of  Bang? 
(a)  Tuberculosis;  (b)  tetanus;  (c)  infectious  abortion. 
11 


162  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

Name  the  channels  through  which  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis  may 
enter  the  animal's  body. 
Alimentary    tract,     respiratory    tract,     genito-urinary     tract, 
abraded  skin  and  mucous  membranes. 

What  is  an  acid-fast  organism?     Name  the  organisms  belonging  to 
this  group. 
An  acid-fast  organism  is  one  that  is  not  decolorized  by  dilute 
acids  after  being  stained  with  the  usual  aniline  dyes. 

B.  tuberculosis,  smegma  bacillus,  leprosy  bacillus  and  the  bacillus 
of  bacterial  dysentery  of  cattle  (Johne's  bacillus)  belong  to  this 
group. 

Describe  the  bacillus  of  (a)  tetanus,  (b)  anthrax,  (c)  tuberculosis. 

(a)  A  slender  rod,  from  4  to  5fi  long  and  generally  shows  a 
spore  at  one  end  which,  being  larger  than  the  bacillus,  gives  it  the 
appearance  of  a  pin  or  drum-stick.  It  is  anaerobic,  stains  readily 
with  aniline  dyes  and  produces  the  most  poisonous  toxin  of  any 
known  bacteria. 

(b)  A  non-motile,  rod-shaped  organism,  5  to  20^  long ;  a  uniform 
width  of  Ifi;  square  cut  ends;  grows  in  long  filaments  composed 
of  a  large  number  of  the  organisms  joined  end  to  end.  It  forms  very 
resistant  spores  and  grows  best  under  aerobic  conditions. 

(c)  Straight  or  slightly  curved  rods,  1.5  to  3.5/^  long  and 
J/oju.  wide,  occurring  singly  or  in  bunches ;  does  not  produce  spores, 
is  acid-fast  and  difficult  to  cultivate  on  culture  media  until  adapted 
to  such  conditions.  v 

Describe  the  fungus  of  actinomycosis. 

This  fungus  belongs  to  the  type  of  higher  bacteria,  known  as 
cladothrix  or  streptothrix.  It  is  club-shaped  and  occurs  as  minute, 
yellow  granules  in  the  lesions;  varies  from  1  to  lO^u,  long;  can  be 
cultivated  on  artificial  media  and  stains  feebly  with  the  aniline  dyes. 
In  some  varieties,  the  clubs  show  long,  thread-like  filaments  attached 
to  them. 

Define  (a)  mallein,  (b)  tuberculin. 

(a)  A  liquid  extract  from  cultures  of  the  glanders  bacillus  used 
as  a  diagnostic  agent  for  glanders.  It  is  prepared  by  growing 
glanders  bacilli  in  a  fiask  of  glycerinated  bouillon  for  G  or  8  weeks ; 
the  growth  is  filtered  off  and  the  filtrate  is  concentrated  by  boiling ; 
a  small  amount  of  a  preservative,  such  as  phenol,  is  added. 

(b)  Tuberculin  is  a  glycerine  extract  obtained  from  cultures  of 
the  tubercle  bacillus  and  is  used  as  a  diagnostic  agent  for  tuber- 
culosis.   It  is  prepared  similar  to  mallein,  above  described. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  163 

What  are  agglutinins? 

Substances  in  the  blood-serum  which  have  the  property  of 
agglutinating  or  clumping  bacteria.  These  substances  are  present 
in  normal  serum  but  are  very  abundant  in  the  serum  of  animals 
immunized  to,  or  suffering  from  certain  diseases.  This  property  is 
utilized  as  a  diagnostic  agent. 

If  unexpectedly  called  upon  to  do  so,  how  could  one  properly  collect 
tissues  in  the  country  for  bacteriologic  examination? 
Procure  a  fruit-jar  with  a  tight-fitting  cover.  Boil  same  for 
thirty  minutes.  Open  the  animal  and,  with  a  sterilized  knife,  cut  out 
and  carefully  place  in  the  jar,  specimens  desired  to  be  examined; 
avoid  contaminating  with  any  other  objects;  seal  quickly,  using 
paraffin  over  the  top. 

What  is  the  opsonic  index?     How  is  it  determined? 

The  opsonic  index  is  the  measure  of  the  power  of  the  blood-serum 
of  an  infected  individual  to  prepare  bacteria  for  phagocytosis,  com- 
pared with  the  serum  of  a  healthy  individual. 

It  is  determined  by  mixing  a  known  quantity  of  bacterial  sus- 
pension with  equal  quantities  of  blood  serum  and  an  emulsion  of 
healthy  leucocytes.  After  incubating  the  mixture  long  enough  to 
permit  the  opsonins  to  act  on  the  bacteria  and  phagocytosis  to  take 
place,  slides  are  prepared  and  stained,  and  the  average  number  of 
bacteria  in  a  leucocyte  determined.  (One  hundred  or  more  leuco- 
cytes should  be  examined  to  obtain  average.)  If  100  leucocytes 
take  up  400  bacteria  when  treated  with  healthy  serum,  and  100 
leucocytes  take  up  only  300  of  the  same  bacteria  when  treated  with 
the  patient's  serum,  that  patient's  opsonic  index  is  (400:300  = 
1:X)  X=0.75. 

What  is  the  cause  of  the  following  diseases:  (a)  surra,  (b)  Johne's 
disease,  (c)  hog  cholera,  (d)  actinomycosis, 
(a)  Trypanosoma  Evansi;    (b)    bacillus  paratuberculosis ;    (c) 
filterable  virus,  associated  with  B.  cholera  suis;  (d)  ray  fungus. 

What  diseases  are  caused  by  the  bacillus  necrophorus? 

The  necrosis  bacillus  causes  foot  rot  in  sheep  and  cattle ;  necro- 
bacillosis  of  the  liver,  lips,  mouth,  vagina,  sheath,  penis ;  and  various 
gangrenous  processes. 

What  is  (a)  an  antitoxin,  (b)  a  toxin,  (c)  a  bactericidal  serum,  (d) 
bacteriolytic  serum,  (e)  exotoxin,  (f)  endotoxin? 

(a)  A  substance  in  the  serum  which  binds  and  neutralizes  toxin ; 


164  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

(b)  a  poisonous  product  elaborated  by  microorganisms ;  (c)  a  serum 
destructive  to  bacteria;  (d)  a  serum  containing  a  lysin  destructive 
to  a  species  of  bacteria;  (e)  a  toxin  excreted  by  a  microorganism, 
and  wliieh  can  be  recovered  by  filtration  from  a  culture  without 
destruction  of  the  producing  agent;  (f)  a  toxin  elaborated  by  a 
microorganism  within  its  substance,  and  which  becomes  free  only 
after  destruction  of  the  producing  agent. 

What  do  you  understand  by  negative  phase? 

The  temporary  lowering  of  the  opsonic  index,  following  an 
injection  of  a  bacillar.y  vaccine.  It  is  followed  by  the  positive 
phase  in  which  the  opsonic  index  is  raised  and  a  relief  from  the 
general  symptoms  of  the  disease  is  observed. 

What  is  meant  by  the  optimum,  maximum  and  minimum  of  tempera- 
ture of  a  germ? 
All  bacteria  grow  best  at  a  certain  temperature,  about  38°  C, 
called  the  optimum.  Some  will  grow  at  a  much  lower  and  some  at 
a  much  higher  temperature.  The  lowest  point  at  which  the  germ 
will  grow  is  called  the  minimum,  and  the  highest  point,  the  maxi- 
mum temperature  of  the  germ. 

What  do  you  understand  by  Gram-positive  and  Gram-negative? 

This  refers  to  Gram's  differential  method  of  staining  bacteria. 
The  specimen  is  first  placed  in  aniline  gentian  violet,  then  rinsed 
in  water  and  immersed  in  Gram's  solution  of  iodine  (iodine  1,  potas- 
sium iodide  2,  water  300),  again  rinsed  in  water  and  placed  for  a 
few  minutes  in  strong  alcohol,  washed  again  and  dipped  in  dilute 
eosin  solution.  The  bacteria  that  are  stained  a  deep-violet  by  this 
method  are  called  Gram-positive;  those  that  are  decolorized  and 
take  on  the  counter-stain  are  Gram-negative. 

How  do  bacteria  produce  disease? 

By  their  irritating  local  action  and  by  the  production  of  toxins. 

Define  immunity  and  give  varieties. 

A  state  in  which  the  body  is  resistant  to  disease.  1.  Natural 
immunity,  possessed  by  all  the  individuals  of  a  class,  by  reason  of 
age  or  racial  peculiarity.  Cattle  are  naturally  immune  to  glanders. 
2.  Acquired  immunity,  obtained  by  having  overcome  an  attack  of  a 
pathogenic  microorganism  (active),  or  as  a  result  of  the  injection 
of  a  serum  from  an  animal  which  has  acquired  an  active  immunity 
against  the  organism  in  question  (passive). 

What  disease  is  caused  by  tinea  tonsurans? 
Ringworm. 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE* 

General  and  Differential  Diagnosis 

What  is  meant  by  (a)  diagnosis,  (b)  prognosis,  (c)  termination? 

(a)  Diagnosis  is  the  recognition  of  a  disease  by  its  symptoms. 

(b)  Prognosis  is  the  art  of  foreseeing  and  predicting  the  course 
and  outcome  of  a  disease. 

(c)  Termination  refers  to  the  end  of  a  disease,  it  may  be  by  cure 
(complete  recovery),  incomplete  recovery  or  death. 

What  is  the  difference  between  an  infectious  and  a  contagious  dis- 
ease? Give  examples  of  each. 
Some  authorities  use  these  terms  synonymously.  All  contagious 
diseases  are  infectious,  that  is,  due  to  infection,  but  all  infectious 
diseases  are  not  contagious,  that  is,  spread  by  contact.  Tetanus  and 
black-leg  are  infectious  diseases  but  are  not  communicable  through 
contact  (contagion),  arising  generally  from  wound  infection; 
whereas,  foot  and  mouth  disease,  anthrax  and  tuberculosis  are  infec- 
tious diseases  which  are  spread  by  contact. 

Describe  a  hard  pulse,  a  fast  pulse,  a  compressible  pulse,  a  dicrotic 
pulse  and  state  conditions  in  which  each  occur. 

A  hard  pulse  is  one  in  which  the  arterial  wall  is  firmly  distended 
and  does  not  yield  readily  to  pressure.  Seen  in  inflammation  of 
serous  membranes  (peritonitis,  pleurisy),  tetanus  and  acute  brain 
diseases. 

A  fast  pulse  is  an  abnormal  increase  in  the  frequency  of  the 
pulse.  It  is  seen  physiologically  after  exercise,  excitement,  high 
atmospheric  temperature ;  pathologically  in  most  all  severe  diseases. 

A  compressible  pulse  is  one  which  yields  readily  to  moderate 
pressure  and  does  not  lift  the  finger  palpating  it;  seen  in  diseases 
associated  with  cardiac  weakness. 

A  dicrotic  pulse  is  one  in  which  two  expansions  can  be  felt  in 
one  beat  of  the  artery;  seen  in  cases  of  lowered  arterial  tension, 
associated  with  weakened  heart  action,  as  in  long-continued  fevers 
and  in  all  forms  of  ansemia. 
Give  the  symptoms  of  internal  hemorrhage. 

Sudden  paleness  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes,  syncope, 
rapid  heart  action,  rapid  weak  pulse,  convulsions  and  death.  De- 
pending upon  the  location,  special  symptoms  may  be  shown,    Gas- 

*  Unless  otherwise  stated  all  questions  relate  to  the  horse. 

165 


166  VETERINAKY  STATE  BOAED 

trie  and  intestinal  hemorrhage  may  be  shown  by  vomiting  of  blood 
and  bloody  feces;  pulmonary  hemorrhage  is  shown  by  dyspna?a, 
coughing  and  bloody  froth  from  the  nostrils,  Hjematuria  is  present 
in  hemorrhage  of  the  urinary  tract. 

What  is  Cheyne-Stokes  breathing?     When  seen? 

A  type  of  breathing  characterized  by  rhythmic  variations  in 
intensity,  occurring  in  cycles.  Each  cycle  consists  of  a  gradual 
decrease  in  the  intensity  of  the  respiratory  movements,  followed  by 
total  cessation  for  a  space  of  from  five  to  forty  seconds;  this  in 
turn  is  followed  by  a  gradual  increase  of  the  respiratory  movements 
until  they  reached  a  maximum  and  become  dyspnceic  in  character. 
This  type  of  breathing  is  seen  in  severe  cerebral  diseases  such  as 
ursemic  coma  and  cerebrospinal  meningitis. 

Differentiate  malignant  oedema  from  anthrax. 

IMalignant  oedema  may  be  differentiated  from  anthrax  by  its 
appearance  outside  of  anthrax  districts;  by  absence  of  bacillus  an- 
thracis  from  the  blood;  normal  size  of  the  spleen;  crepitating 
swellings;  presence  of  an  extensive  wound  and  the  characteristic, 
causative  microorganism. 

Differentiate  heat  stroke  (thermic  fever)  from  heat  exhaustion. 

Heat  stroke  is  manifested  by  weariness  during  work,  profuse 
sweating,  great  rise  of  temperature,  dyspnoea,  rapid  pulse,  dilata- 
tion followed  by  contraction  of  the  pupil,  staggering,  collapse  and 
death.  In  heat  exhaustion,  there  is  no  fever  present,  in  fact  the 
temperature  may  be  subnormal;  muscular  weakness  and  collapse. 

Name  the  diagnostic  tests  for  glanders. 

1.  Animal  inoculation  (Strauss  method). 

2.  Subcutaneous  mallein. 

3.  Cutaneous  mallein. 

4.  Intradermal  mallein. 

5.  Ophthalmic  mallein. 

6.  Complement-fixation. 

7.  Agglutination. 

8.  Precipitin. 

9.  Autogenous  bacterin. 

10.  Post-mortem. 

11.  Clinical  (physical  examination). 

State  the  difference  between  the  agglutination  test  and  the  precipitin 
test  for  glanders. 
The  agglutination  test  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  blood-serum, 
which  normally  contains  agglutinating  substances,  but  in  glanders 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  167 

a  greater  amount,  will  cause  the  clumping,  or  agglutinating  of 
glanders  bacilli  in  suspensions  of  potato  or  agar  cultures,  whereupon 
these  clumps  are  precipitated  to  the  bottom  of  the  supernatant  clear 
fluid. 

The  precipitin  test  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  the  serum  from 
a  glandered  horse  produces  a  flaky  precipitate  in  the  filtrate  of 
glanders  cultures,  when  mixed  together. 

In  a  test  for  glanders,  state  the  relative  advantages  of  the  mallein  and 
agglutination  tests. 
The  mallein  test  can  only  be  used  on  living  animals.  The  agglu- 
tination test  can  be  applied  to  dead  animals.  The  former  method 
is  long  and  tedious  and  cannot  be  used  when  fever  is  present, 
whereas  the  latter  is  simple  for  the  practitioner,  most  of  the  work 
being  done  in  a  laboratory ;  presence  of  fever  is  no  hindrance.  Mal- 
lein is  more  accurate ;  agglutination  does  occur  with  the  serum  of 
healthy  animals  and  the  line  of  distinction  is  often  close.  The  mal- 
lein test  necessitates  the  confinement  of  the  patient,  whereas  the 
agglutination  test  allows  the  horse  to  continue  at  work. 

Describe  the  course  to  be  pursued  in  testing  with  mallein. 

Take  three  preliminary  temperatures,  at  least  four  hours  apart. 
With  antiseptic  precautions,  inject  the  mallein  subcutaneously. 
Eight  hours  later,  make  a  temperature  reading  and  thereafter  every 
two  hours  until  twenty  hours  after  injection.  A  reaction  consists 
of  a  gradual  rise  and  fall  of  temperature  of  at  least  2°  F.,  and  a 
local  reaction  shown  by  an  cedematous,  painful  swelling  at  the  seat 
of  injection,  lasting  four  or  five  days.  Healthy  horses  are  not 
affected  except,  perhaps,  by  a  local  swelling  which  disappears  in 
twenty-four  hours. 

The  ophthalmic  mallein  test  depends  upon  a  purulent  conjunc- 
tivitis following  from  4  to  24  hours  after  the  instillation  of  a  few 
drops  of  a  concentrated  mallein  solution  into  the  conjunctival  sac. 

The  cutaneous  mallein  test  depends  upon  a  local  reaction  follow- 
ing an  intradermal  or  endermic  inoculation  with  mallein. 

Describe  the  complement  fixation  test  for  glanders. 

The  phenomenon  of  haemolysis  is  the  fundamental  principle  of 
this  test.  If  the  blood-serum  of  a  rabbit  is  treated  with  the  red 
blood-corpuscles  of  a  sheep,  antibodies  (hcemolytic  amboceptors) 
will  be  formed.  These  antibodies  have  the  power  to  dissolve  sheep 
red  blood-corpuscles  in  the  presence  of  free  complement.  This 
process  is  called  hcemolysis  and  depends  upon  two  substances;  one 
of  these,  the  complement,  is  present  in  the  blood  of  every  animal 


168 


VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 


and  can  be  destroyed  by  heating  the  serum  to  56°  C.  for  half  an 
hour.  (This  is  called  inactivating  the  serum)  ;  the  other  substance, 
known  as  the  immune  body,  hcEmolyiic  amboceptor,  or  antibody. 
By  inactivating  the  serum,  the  power  of  haemolysis  is  lost,  because 
the  complement  is  destroyed;  but  this  power  can  be  restored  by 
adding  fresh  serum  which  always  contains  complement.  Guinea-pig 
serum  is  very  rich  in  complement  and  is  used  in  the  test. 

In  horses  affected  with  glanders,  the  infectious  principle,  the 
toxin,  stimulates  the  production  of  antibodies.  These  antibodies, 
or  bacterial  amboceptors,  are  nature's  fighters  against  the  invading 
toxin.  For  use  in  this  test,  this  toxin  is  obtained  by  making  an  ex- 
tract of  an  artificial  growth  of  glanders  bacilli,  and  is  called  antigen. 

If  the  serum  of  a  glandered  animal  which,  of  course,  contains 
antibodies,  is  inactivated  (complement  destroyed  by  heat)  and 
brought  in  contact  with  the  antigen  in  the  presence  of  complement 
(supplied  by  adding  fresh  guinea-pig  serum),  the  complement  will 
become  firmly  fixed  by  the  combined  antibody  and  antigen.  This 
fixation  of  the  complement  is  more  thoroughly  established  when  the 
mixture  is  placed  in  an  incubator  for  one  hour.  If  to  this  mixture, 
red  blood-corpuscles  of  a  sheep  and  rabbit  serum,  containing  hsemo- 
lytie  amboceptors,  are  added,  no  haemolysis  will  occur  because  the 
complement  that  was  added  was  previously  fixed  to  the  antigen  by 
means  of  the  glanders  antibodies. 

The  serum  of  a  glanders-free  horse  does  not  contain  antibodies, 
so  if  it  is  mixed  with  antigen  and  complement,  the  latter  does  not 
become  fixed,  but  remains  free;  therefore,  when  the  red  blood- 
corpuscles  and  the  rabbit  serum,  containing  hfemolytic  amboceptors, 
are  added  to  such  a  mixture,  haemolysis  occurs. 


Positive  Reaction. 
Antigen  +  serum-containing  antibody 
-|-  complement  +  hsemolytic     ambo- 
ceptor +  sheep  red  blood-corpuscles 
=:no  hsemolysis. 

The  complement  unites  with  the  anti- 
gen, through  the  antibody,  hence 
there  is  no  complement  to  act 
through  the  hsemolytic  amboceptor 
on  the  sheep  corpuscles. 


'Negative  Reaction. 
Antigen  -f  normal  s  e  r  u  m  -f  comple- 
m  e  n  t  -f  hsemolytic    amboceptor  -f- 
eheep  red  blood-corpuscles  =  haiinol- 
ysis. 

There  is  no  antibody  to  unite  the 
complement  and  antigen,  hence  the 
complement  is  free  to  act  through 
the  hajmolytic  amboceptor  on  the 
sheep  red  blood-corpuscles. 


This  is  not  a  practicable  test  for  the  regular  practitioner  because 
it  requires  special  laboratory  apparatus  and  very  accurate  technic. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  169 

How  may  strangles  be  differentiated  from  glanders? 

By  purulent  submaxillary  lymphadenitis;  by  animal  inocula- 
tion ;  by  any  of  the  various  glanders  tests ;  in  glanders,  typical  ulcers 
are  seen  in  the  nasal  mucous  membranes,  similar  ulcers  are  seen 
in  strangles  but  tend  to  heal  rapidly;  strangles  occurs  in  young 
horses  and  prevails  in  sale  stables. 

Make  a  differential  diagnosis  between  acute  nasal  glanders  and  nasal 
gleet. 
Clinically,  it  may  be  difficult  to  differentiate,  a  considerable 
time  for  observation  being  necessary.  Usually  there  are  no  ulcers 
or  scars  in  nasal  gleet,  and  the  disease  responds  to  treatment. 
Special  diagnostic  tests  for  glanders  are  best  resorted  to  at  first  to 
avoid  danger  in  handling. 

Name  two  diseases  that  are  frequently  mistaken  for  glanders.    Name 
two  laboratory  methods  frequently  employed  in  diagnosing 
glanders. 
Strangles  and  nasal  gleet    (chronic  rhinitis).     Agglutination 
test  and  complement  fixation  test. 

Make  a  differential  diagnosis  of  acute  lymphangitis  and  farcy. 

Lymphangitis  is  a  local  affection ;  farcy  is  a  symptom  of  general- 
ized glanders.  The  former  progresses  very  acutely  with  fever  and 
sometimes  formation  of  abscesses  in  the  lymph-glands;  the  latter 
usually  progresses  slowly,  without  fever  and  with  but  slight  par- 
ticipation of  the  glands.  The  abscesses  of  lymphangitis  have  smooth 
edges  and  heal  rapidly  by  granulation,  but  those  of  glanders  form 
crateriform,  non-healing  ulcers.  Special  diagnostic  tests  for 
glanders. 

Differentiate  azoturia  from  spinal  meningitis. 

Differentiate  by  the  sudden  onset,  hard  swollen  gluteal  muscles, 
ability  to  bear  weight  on  the  legs,  although  the  fetlocks  knuckle; 
history  of  idleness  and  full' diet;  black,  coffee-colored  urine. 

Differentiate  cryptogamic  forage  poisoning  from  lead  poisoning. 

Forage  poisoning  develops  slowly  with  paralyses,  especially  of 
the  pharynx,  little  or  no  fever.  Lead  poisoning  has  a  sudden  onset 
(except  in  the  chronic  form)  ;  salivation,  convulsions,  colics,  blue  line 
around  gums,  coma  and  collapse. 

Differentiate  osteoporosis  from  osteomalacia. 

Osteoporosis  is  a  condition  in  which  the  compact  bone  prolifer- 
ates and  becomes  rarefied  (porous),  or  cancellated.  Osteomalacia 
is  a  morbid  softening  of  bone.     The  former  often  occurs  with  the 


170  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

latter  and  predominates.  In  fact,  the  two  conditions  are  so  similar 
that,  in  view  of  the  lack  of  information,  it  is  hardly  proper  to  classify 
them  as  independent  affections.  However,  osteomalacia  occurs  more 
frequently  in  cattle  and  clinically,  in  many  ways,  is  not  unlike 
osteoporosis  which  is  more  commonly  observed  in  horses. 

Describe  the  course  to  be  pursued  in  testing  virith  tuberculin. 

Practically  the  same  as  the  mallein  test  (subcutaneous),  see 
page  167,  except  no  local  reaction  occurs  as  in  glanders. 

Give  an  account  of  the  sources  of  fallacy  in  testing  cattle  for  tuber- 
culosis and  state  clearly  the  precautions  that  might  be  taken 
to  avoid  them. 

Tuberculin  may  be  of  inferior  quality.  Cattle  may  have  been 
tested  recently  or  had  tuberculin  injected  just  previous  to  test, 
and  therefore  do  not  respond  properly.  Cattle  do  not  react  when 
in  advanced  stages  of  the  disease.  Cows,  within  two  weeks  of  par- 
turition, may  not  react  though  affected  with  the  disease.  Stabling 
animals  when  accustomed  to  pasture  may  cause  a  rise  in  tempera- 
ture. Administration  of  antipyretics  by  unscrupulous  owners 
may  cause  a  mistaken  interpretation  of  results. 

Precautions:  Use  freshly  prepared  reliable  tuberculin;  deter- 
mine, if  possible,  the  date  of  last  test;  observe  advanced  cases  by 
clinical  examination  and  exclude  them  from  test;  defer  testing 
pregnant  cows  near  end  of  term  and  cows  which  have  recently 
calved;  stable  animals  a  few  days  before  making  test. 

Differentiate  contagious  pleuropneumonia  from  influenza. 

Contagious  pleuropneumonia  is  characterized  by  the  typical 
pleurisy  and  pneumonia  which  are  transmitted  with  the  same  pre- 
dominating symptoms  to  other  animals.  The  legs  do  not  swell  as 
in  influenza;  it  is  more  severe  and  fatal;  influenza  may  cause  a 
croupous  pneumonia;  is  milder  in  attack;  digestive  disorders  are 
common ;  legs  swell ;  pink-eye  is  seen. 

Give  the  distinctive  symptoms  of  spasmodic  colic  and  enteritis. 

Spasmodic  colic  shows  intervals  of  ease,  no  fever,  and  violent 
movements  when  spasms  occur ;  early  recovery.  Enteritis  is  accom- 
panied by  fever,  constant  uneasiness,  careful  decubitus  and  rising ; 
gradually  grows  worse. 

What  is  the  difference  between  septicaemia  and  pyaemia?     Treatment 
for  each. 
Septicaemia  is  a  morbid  condition  due  to  the  presence  of  non- 
specific pathogenic  bacteria  and  their  associated  poisons  (toxins  and 
tox-albumins)  in  the  blood.      It  is  accompanied  by  chills,  fever, 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  171 

sweating  and  great  prostration.  Pyaemia  is  a  blood-poisoning  by 
pyogenic  microorganisms  and  is  shown  by  fever,  chills,  icterus  and 
abscess  formation  in  various  parts  of  the  body. 

Treatment:  Is  virtually  hopeless.  Remove  necrotic  tissue  from 
wounds ;  antiseptic  treatment ;  quinine  sulphate  in  large  doses,  inter- 
nally ;  stimulants  to  sustain  heart  action. 

Give  the  differential  symptoms  of  acute  pharyngitis  and  acute  laryn- 
gitis. 

Pharyngitis:  difficulty  in  swallowing;  no  cough. 
Laryngitis :  no  difficulty  in  swallowing ;  cough  present. 
Often  occur  together. 

How  can  acute  nephritis  be  distinguished  from  lumbago  and  lumbar 
rheumatism? 
By  urinary  examination  and  finding  casts,  indicative  of  nephritis. 
By  tenderness  of  the  kidneys  in  nephritis,  as  shown  by  palpation 
per  rectum. 

What  do  you  understand  by  diagnostic  inoculation? 

Diagnostic  inoculations  consist  of  the  introduction  of  certain 
substances  into  the  bodies  of  animals  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
either  the  character  of  the  substance  or  the  condition  of  the  animal 's 
health.  Hence  the  substance  injected  is  either  a  material  of  known 
composition  (tuberculin,  mallein),  or  tissue  from  an  animal  affected 
with  an  infectious  disease,  the  nature  of  which  is  to  be  determined. 

Name  three  diseases  in  which  you  would  expect  to  find  a  subnormal 
temperature. 
Parturient  paresis,  anaemia  and  chronic  gastro-intestinal  catarrh 
in  the  dog. 

Discuss  auscultation  and  palpation. 

Auscultation  is  the  act  of  listening  for  sounds  within  the  body, 
especially  in  determining  the  condition  of  the  heart,  lungs,  pleura 
and  abdominal  organs. 

Palpation  is  the  act  of  examining  an  organ  by  feeling  with  the 
hands  or  finger  tips. 

How  is  a  positive  diagnosis  of  rabies  made? 

By  miscroscopic  examination  of  the  brain  and  finding  Negri 
bodies;  also  by  inoculating  experimental  animals  with  the  brain 
tissue  of  the  suspected  animal.  More  recently,  the  complement- 
fixation  test  has  been  used  and  is  said  to  be  satisfactory  in  the 
diagnosis  of  rabies. 


172  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  mode  of  examining  a  horse  for  soundness  and  a  certificate  for 
same. 
Examine  the  horse  in  the  stable,  outside  and  at  work.  Record  a 
description  of  the  animal  for  the  purpose  of  identification.  Exam- 
ine thoroughly  every  accessible  part  or  organ  by  inspection,  palpa- 
tion and  auscultation.  As  very  few  horses  are  absolutely  sound, 
most  examiners  employ  the  phrase  "serviceably  sound,"  meaning 
that  the  defects  present  will  not  interfere  with  the  animal  perform- 
ing the  required  duty. 

EXAMINATION  FOR  SOUNDNESS 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan.  5,  1914. 

This  certifies,  that  I  have  this  day  examined,  at  the  request  of 
Mr.  John  Doe,  a  bay  gelding,  15.2  hands  high,  9  years  old,  white 
star  and  blaze  patch  between  nostrils,  clipped  foretop,  full  mane 
and  tail,  all  black  points,  saddle  and  collar  marks,  slit  in  the  tip  of 
left  ear. 

Notes :  ringbone  on  near  fore,  chronic  arthritis  deformans  of  the 
left  hock. 

From  above  notes,  to  the  best  of  my  judgment  and  belief,  said 
animal  is  not  sound, 

Richard  Roe,  D.V.M. 

Note. — The  above  examination  does  not  include  such  obscure 
diseases  as  staggers  (epilepsy  and  immobility),  recurrent  ophthal- 
mia, cribbing  without  evidence  on  teeth,  etc. 

Acute  General  Infectious  Diseases 

What  are  the  essential  causes  of  hog  cholera  and  swine  plague? 

According  to  the  results  of  latest  investigators,  hog  cholera  is 
caused  by  an  ultramicroscopic,  filtrable  virus.  Besides  the  virus, 
two  species  of  bacteria,  the  bacillus  suipestifer  and  the  bacillus 
suisepticus,  play  an  important  part  in  the  etiology  of  hog  cholera. 
The  secondary  affections  of  the  intestines,  lymph-glands  and  lungs 
are  usually  produced  by  the  pathogenic  action  of  these  bacteria. 

Swine  plague  is  caused  by  the  bacillus  suisepticus. 

Give  the  diagnostic  symptoms  of  hog  cholera  and  swine  plague. 

Hog  cholera:  Acute  form,  fever,  variable  appetite,  vomiting, 
conjunctivitis,  constipation  followed  by  diarrha-a  which  may  be 
bloody ;  reddening  of  skin  on  nose,  ears,  abdomen  and  on  the  inside 
of  the  thighs;  die  after  a  few  hours  or  a  few  days'  sickness;  simul- 
taneous sickness  of  several  members  of  the  herd ;  may  or  may  not 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  173 

be  complicated  with  the  respiratory  affection  of  swine  plague. 
Chronic  form,  after  1-3  weeks,  acute  symptoms  diminish,  appetite 
improves,  diarrhoea  ceases;  recovery;  others,  the  appetite  remains 
irregular,  occasional  diarrhoea,  antemia,  cachexia,  exhaustion  and 
death  after  several  months. 

Swine  plague :  Often  appears  as  a  complication  of  hog  cholera. 
Less  commonly  as  a  primary  affection.  Peraeute  form :  high  fever, 
weakness,  anorexia,  petechia,  symptoms  of  hemorrhagic  septicsemia ; 
die  in  12  to  2-4  hours.  Acute  form:  fever  104°-106°  F.,  nasal  dis- 
charge, paroxj^smal  cough,  dyspnoea,  pneumonia,  tenderness  of 
thorax  (pleurisy),  cyanotic  membranes,  rapid,  throbbing  pulse; 
constipation  followed  by  diarrhoea,  anorexia,  emaciation,  petechiae, 
die  in  1  to  2  weeks ;  recovery  rare.  Chronic  form  follows  subsidence 
of  acute  symptoms;  coughing  and  difSeult  respiration  persist; 
cachexia ;  polyarthritis ;  die  in  3  to  6  weeks. 

What  prophylactic  measures  and  means  of  extinction  should  be  em- 
ployed in  an  outbreak  of  hog  cholera  or  swine  plague  ? 

Hog  cholera:  Separate  the  well  from  the  affected  and  divide 
into  small  groups;  should  any  of  these  show  symptoms,  repeat  the 
procedure.  Destroy  affected  and  thoroughly  disinfect  premises; 
isolate  newly-purchased  animals  for  three  weeks  before  introducing 
them  into  herd ;  quarantine ;  immunize  and  treat  with  serum. 

Swine  plague :  Separate  the  well  from  the  affected ;  destroy  car- 
casses, thoroughly  disinfect,  quarantine  and  immunize  with  hog 
cholera  serum.  (Hog  cholera  and  swine  plague  often  exist  in  the 
same  animal.) 

State  causes  of  horse-pox  and  cowpox. 

An  ultramicroscopic,  filtrable  virus,  called  ' '  virus  of  variola. ' ' 

Give  the  general  symptoms,  the  sequelae  and  the  best  methods  of  treat- 
ment, restriction  and  extinction  of  horse-  and  cowpox. 
Horse-pox  is  very  rare  and  its  occurrence  is  doubted  by  many 
good  authorities.  A  vesiculopustular  exanthema  in  the  flexor  re- 
gion of  the  pastern  of  young  animals  is  considered  as  horse-pox. 
This  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  slight  elevation  of  temperature. 
Treatment  consists  of  antiseptic  dressing  of  affected  part. 

Cowpox  occurs  sporadically  on  the  teats  and  around  their  base ; 
5  to  20  nodules,  size  of  a  pea,  develop  into  vesicles,  pustules  and 
rupture,  leaving  an  ulcer,  scab  and  scar,  respectively.  Duration, 
1  to  2  weeks ;  slight  general  disturbance,  fever,  diminished  appetite, 
irregular  rumination,  changes  in  the  milk  not  constant.  Scrotum 
affected  in  the  male.     Sequelse:  mastitis,  wound  infection. 


174  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Treatment:  Avoid  irritating  wound;  use  milk  catheter;  keep 
udder  clean  and  dry ;  isolate  and  vaccinate ;  Epsom  salts  internally ; 
sodium  hyposulphite,  1  per  cent,  solution,  or  oxide  of  zinc  oint- 
ment externally. 

Give  the  accessory  causes  of  tetanus. 

Essential  cause  is  the  bacillus  tetani.  Accessory  causes :  traumas, 
especially  punctured  wounds,  castration,  amputation  of  the  tail, 
pricks  in  shoeing,  parturition,  unhealed  navel,  etc. 

What  genera  are  most  subject  to  tetanus?     Why? 

Solipeds,  because  they  are  more  susceptible  to  the  action  of  the 
virus  and  more  subject  to  traumatism. 

Give  the  diagnostic  symptoms,  prevention  and  treatment  of  tetanus. 

Symptoms:  generalized  tonic  spasms,  "saw-horse"  attitude, 
head  and  tail  extended,  ears  rigid,  eyes  sunken  and  fixed,  protrusion 
of  the  membrana  nictitans,  nostrils  dilated,  hyperaesthesia,  difficult 
swallowing,  temperature  normal  or  slightly  elevated,  constipation. 

Prevention :  Avoid  traumatism,  especially  nail  wounds  of  the 
feet.  Treat  all  wounds  antiseptically.  Tetanus  antitoxin,  if  given 
before  symptoms  appear,  in  dose  of  750  units,  will  prevent  the 
disease. 

Treatment:  Nothing  specific.  Disinfect  the  seat  of  infection; 
provide  quiet  quarters ;  feed  easily  masticated,  laxative  diet ;  keep 
fresh  water  before  patient;  empty  rectum  and  bladder  at  frequent 
intervals  with  the  hand ;  antispasmodics  may  help  in  controlling 
spasms;  phenol,  magnesium  sulphate,  bromides,  hydrocyanic  acid, 
lobelia,  tetanus  antitoxin,  etc.,  are  of  disputed  therapeutic  value. 

State  the  cause  of  malignant  oedema.     Name  the  microbe  and  give 
symptoms  and  course. 
Cause:  wound  infection  by  bacillus  oedematis  maligni. 
Symptoms :  Suddenly  appearing  and  rapidly  spreading  swelling 
which  is  cedematous  and  crepitates  on  palpation ;  hot  and  tender  at 
first  but  later  becomes  insensitive;  if  incised,  a  reddish-yellow  or 
colorless  serous  fluid  containing  air-bubbles  is  discharged ;  dyspnoea, 
cyanotic  membranes,  colicky  pains,  tympanites,  high  temperature; 
death  may  occur  in  a  few  hours  or,  at  the  longest,  three  days  after 
appearance  of  the  first  symptoms.     Recovery  exceptional. 

Describe  the  symptoms  of  hemorrhagic  septicaemia  in  cattle. 

Sudden  checking  in  milk  secretion,  difficult  swallowing,  anorexia, 
general  dulness,  high  temperature,  diarrhtral  discharge  dark  in  color 
or  may  be  bloody ;  bloody  urine  and  bloody  serous  discharge  from 
nostrils ;  painful  edematous  swellings  about  the  legs,  shoulders  and 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  175 

under  the  throat ;  convulsions ;  short  duration,  often  found  dead  in 
field. 

Describe  the  symptoms  and  course  of  anthrax  in  cattle. 

Peracute  cases:  May  die  suddenly  with  no  previous  symptoms 
observed;  high  fever,  bloody  discharge  from  mouth,  nostrils  and 
anus,  convulsions  and  death  in  a  few  hours. 

Acute  cases:  High  fever,  restlessness  followed  later  by  depres- 
sion and  convulsions;  small  rapid  pulse,  dyspnoea  from  oedema  of 
the  glottis ;  tjTnpany,  diarrhoea,  fseces  mixed  with  blood,  or  clots  of 
blood  may  be  passed ;  hot,  doughy  swellings  over  the  surface  of  the 
body.  Cutaneous^  form,  which  is  characterized  by  carbuncles 
(malignant  pustule),  rare.    Death  in  12  to  48  hours. 

Subacute  cases:  Occur  in  latter  end  of  an  epidemic;  show  rise 
of  temperature  and  constitutional  disturbance;  recover  in  2  to  7 
days. 

Give  the  symptoms,  treatment  and  general  termination  of  epizootic 
cellulitis. 

A  form  of  influenza  characterized  by  fever,  depression  and  in- 
flammatory oedema  of  the  cutis  and  subcutis  over  the  dependent  por- 
tions of  the  body,  especially  the  eyelids,  nostrils,  sheath,  ventral 
surface  of  the  abdomen  and  the  limbs.  Appetite  may  or  may  not 
be  impaired;  pulse  rapid  and  strong;  disinclination  to  move;  con- 
stipation. 

Treatment:  Sodium  sulphate  may  be  given  in  bran  mashes 
or  in  drench.  Potassium  nitrate  in  the  drinking  water.  Usually 
recover  uneventfully. 

Describe  the  symptoms  of  infectious  pneumonia  (contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia)  other  than  the  elevation  of  temperature,  in- 
creased pulse-rate  and  respiration. 
Icterus,  anorexia,  dulness,  yellow  nasal  discharge,  cough,  crepi- 
tation, pleuritic  friction  at  first,  later  a  long  horizontal  line  of  dul- 
ness on  percussion  due  to  exudate;  pharyngitis  which  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  inhalation  bronchitis  and  gangrenous  pneumonia ;  pericar- 
ditis, endocarditis  and  myocarditis;  dropsical  swellings  of  the  legs 
and  elsewhere.    The  symptom  of  dulness  may  be  followed  by  stupor, 
rolling  of  eyes,  vertigo  or  paresis  of  the  hind  limbs. 

Give  course,  termination  and  treatment  of  contagious  pleuropneumonia. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question.  Moderate  cases  in  strong, 
well-nourished  horses  begin  to  improve  at  the  end  of  one  week  and 
recover  in  2  to  3  weeks,  convalescence  complete  in  one  month. 
Severe  cases  almost  mvariably  succumb  in  a  few  days;  gangrene 


176  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

of  the  lungs,  toxtemia,  tendinitis  and  myocarditis  are  unfavorable 
complications. 

Treatment :  Hygienic  and  dietetic  measures  are  most  important. 
In  very  high  fever,  give  antipj^retics ;  likewise,  symptomatic  treat- 
ment in  other  alarming  conditions  such  as  intestinal  antiseptics  in 
diarrhoea,  heart  tonics  in  myocarditis,  etc.  Nuclein,  tallianin,  col- 
loidal silver,  bacterial  endotoxins  and  serum  therapy  are  of  disputed 
therapeutic  value.  More  recently,  salvarsan  and  neosalvarsan  have 
been  advocated  as  specifics  and  ''sure  cures"  and  the  outlook  is 
most  encouraging. 

Give  the  symptoms  of  foot  and  mouth  disease  (aphthae  epizooticae). 

Fever,  redness  and  tenderness  of  the  buccal  mucous  membranes 
and  teats,  grinding  of  teeth,  salivation,  smacking  of  tongue,  tender 
feet,  shaking  of  feet  backward;  blisters  on  lips,  buccal  mucous 
membranes,  teats  and  between  digits;  these  blisters  may  rupture 
and  leave  a  raw,  inflamed,  underlying  tissue;  separation  of  horn 
from  coronary  band  sometimes  occurs;  diarrhoea  in  sucklings  due 
to  gastro-intestinal  catarrh.  Prognosis  favorable  in  adult  cattle. 
Recovery  in  2  weeks. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  course  of  rabies  in  dogs. 

Two  forms,  furious  and  dumb.  Furious  form:  More  affec- 
tionate, dulness  alternating  with  excitement ;  peculiar  howl,  due  to 
paralysis  of  the  throat;  depraved  appetite,  hallucinations,  eyes 
red  and  fixed ;  wanders  away  from  home,  biting  dogs,  persons  and 
all  objects  in  its  path;  dribbling  of  saliva  and  finally  paralysis  of 
the  lower  jaw,  pharynx  and  posterior  limbs,  followed  by  death. 
Course,  2  to  5  days.  Dumb  form :  Usually  follows  the  furious  form 
and  represents  the  paralytic  stage.  If  present  from  the  first,  the 
animal  is  dull,  apathetic,  shows  little  or  no  inclination  to  bite;  no 
howling,  seeks  seclusion  and  quiet.  Paralysis  extends  and  death 
follows. 

Describe  the  successive  symptoms  of  a  very  severe  case  of  distemper 
in  the  dog  eventually  ending  in  death. 
Fever,  vomiting,  coughing,  nasal  discharge  wliich  is  first  serous 
but  later  mucopurulent;  catarrhal  conjunctivitis,  keratitis,  ulcers 
on  the  cornea;  exanthema;  catarrhal  bronchitis  and  pneum6nia, 
chorea,  emaciation  and  death.  May  have  the  nervous  form,  mani- 
fested by  chorea,  from  the  first. 

Give  the  causes  and  symptoms  of  Texas  fever. 

Cause :  A  microorganism  belonging  to  the  j^rotozoa,  called  piro- 
plasma  bigeminum,  also  called  Babesia  bigeminum  bovis. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  177 

Symptoms :  Acute  form,  liigli  fever,  rapid  pulse  and  respiration, 
anorexia,  dulness,  constipation,  icterus,  prostration,  weakness,  de- 
lirium, hcPmoglobinuria,  blood  thin  and  pale,  diarrhoea,  emaciation. 
Course,  1  to  7  days.  Mild  form :  Symptoms  similar  to  those  in  the 
acute  form,  except  they  are  less  severe  and  are  prolonged  for  a 
greater  length  of  time. 

What  is  influenza?     Give  causes  and  symptoms. 

Influenza  is  an  acute,  infectious  disease  of  the  horse  (rarely  the 
ass  and  mule),  occurring  enzootically  and  epizootically,  and  is  char- 
acterized by  a  rise  of  temperature  and  a  catarrhal  condition  of  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  respiratory  and  digestive  tracts. 

Cause :  Seems  to  be  a  specific  infection,  the  nature  of  which  is, 
as  yet,  undetermined.  A  number  of  organisms  have  been  found  and 
described  as  the  specific  one,  viz.,  coccobacillus  of  Lignieres,  bacilli, 
streptococci,  etc.  A  filtrable  virus  seems  to  have  been  proven  by 
recent  experimenters  who  consider  the  streptococci,  bacilli,  etc.,  as 
secondary  invaders. 

SjTuptoms:  Various  manifestations  and  forms;  viz.,  catarrhal 
form,  pink  eye,  abdominal  form,  infectious  cellulitis  and  any  number 
of  combinations  of  the  above.  In  general,  we  observe :  sudden 
attack,  anorexia,  extreme  prostration  and  weakness,  high  tempera- 
ture, swelling  and  watering  of  the  eyes,  icterus,  cough,  accelerated 
pulse,  mucopurulent  nasal  discharge,  pharyngitis,  bronchitis, 
pneumonia,  pleurisy,  digestive  disorders,  and  an  cedematous  swell- 
ing of  the  extremities,  sheath,  etc.  Mild  cases  may  show  only  a 
high  fever  and  prostration  lasting  a  few  days.  There  is  a  great 
variety  of  internal  forms. 

Give  some  of  the  modern  forms  of  treatment  of  influenza. 

Besides  the  usual  symptomatic  treatment  followed  in  pneumonia, 
pleurisy  and  enteritis  from  other  causes,  nuclein,  tallianine,  anti- 
streptococcus  serum,  polyvalent  bacterins,  mixed  infection  phyla- 
cogens  and  proprietary  vaccines  are  used. 

Give  causes  and  symptoms  of  purpura  hemorrhagica. 

Cause:  Not  definitely  known;  follows  debilitating  diseases  as  a 
secondary  affection ;  probably  toxins,  especially  those  causing  vaso- 
dilatation. 

Symptoms:  Fever;  nasal  petechise;  characteristic,  extensive, 
abruptly-ending  swellings  of  the  skin  and  subcutis  of  the  abdomen, 
sheath  and  extremities;  oozing  of  serum  from  the  skin;  dyspncea 
and  suffocation  may  follow  from  swelling  of  the  nostrils  and 
pharynx ;  locomotion  is  painful ;  appetite  is  usually  good  in  the 
mild  and  often  in  the  severe  cases. 
12 


178  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

What  is  the  prognosis  and  treatment  of  purpura  hemorrhagica? 

Prognosis:  Depends  upon  the  severity  of  the  attack  and  the 
complications.    Average  mortality  50  per  cent. 

Treatment:  Hygienic  attention  is  very  important;  potassium 
chlorate  as  a  diuretic ;  give  vasomotor  stimulants  as  potassium 
dieliromate,  quinine  sulphate,  strychnine  sulphate  and  ergot ;  inter- 
nal antiseptics  such  as  sodium  salicylate,  salol,  calomel,  turpentine ; 
occasional  small  doses  of  linseed  oil  for  its  laxative  effect,  but  do 
not  give  strong  or  drastic  purgatives;  surgical  measures  such  as 
tracheotomy  may  be  necessary. 

Define  specific  infectious  disease.     Name  five  of  these  diseases. 

A  specific  infectious  disease  is  one  that  is  caused  by  the  multi- 
plication of  a  single  species  of  microorganism  within  the  animal 
body.  This  particular  organism,  and  it  only,  can  produce  the 
disease,  e.g.,  anthrax,  Texas  fever,  tetanus,  glanders,  tuberculosis. 

State  the  period  of  incubation  of  a  case  of  street  rabies  in  the  dog. 

Varies  from  two  weeks  to  three  months.  There  are  cases  re- 
corded with  an  incubation  period  of  two  years  ( ? ) .  Average,  22 
days. 

Give  the  causes  and  treatment  of  an  epizootic  of  scours  in  calves  (white 
scours). 

Accessory  causes:  Unclean  surroundings;  open  umbilicus;  and 
hereditary  debility.  Specific  cause :  umbilical  and  intestinal  infec- 
tion with  B.  coli  communis. 

Treatment :  As  a  prophylactic  measure,  disinfect  stables  and  the 
external  genitals  of  the  mother  before  parturition;  provide  clean 
surroundings  for  parturient  animals.  Disinfect  the  umbilical  re- 
gion; sterilize  the  milk,  feeding  utensils,  or  udder  before  feeding; 
clear  the  intestinal  tract  of  irritating  matters  with  castor  oil  one 
ounce,  or  calomel  2  to  5  grains,  and  follow  with  subnitrate  of  bis- 
muth 30  grains ;  one  teaspoonf ul  of  a  1  to  4000  solution  of  formalin, 
to  each  pint  of  milk,  is  useful  to  check  diarrhoea  in  artificially  fed 
calves,  but  it  should  be  preceded  by  castor  oil. 

Give  the  symptoms  of  rhino-adenitis.    Mention  the  complications  that 
sometimes  occur  in  rhino-adenitis. 
Rhino-adenitis  or  strangles  is  a  disease  of  young  liorses,  mani- 
fested by  dulness,  anorexia,  mucopurulent  na.sal  discharge,  purulent 
inflammation  of  the  submaxillary  lympli-glands  which  leads  to  rup- 
ture and  healing;  fever;  increased  pulse.     Complications:  laryn- 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  179 

gitis,  pharyngitis,  bronchopneumonia,  pleurisy,  metastatis  abscess 
formation  in  the  lungs,  liver,  kidneys,  spleen,  pancreas  and  other 
parts. 

Chronic  Infectious  Diseases 

What  genus  of  animals  is  subject  to  Johne's  disease?     State  the  essen- 
tial cause. 
Bovine.    Caused  by  the  bacillus  of  Johne's  disease,  an  acid-fast 
microorganism  which  resembles  very  much  the  tubercle  bacillus. 

What  are  the  symptoms  of  Johne's  disease? 

Gradual  emaciation  and  aneemia  unattended  by  fever  or  pain; 
a  persistent,  thin,  watery  diarrhoea,  containing  gas  bubbles;  appe- 
tite variable;  diminished  milk  secretion;  fatal  termination.  This 
disease  is  also  known  as  **  enteritis  chronica  paratuberculosa "  and 
"chronic  bacterial  dysentery." 

State  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  Johne's  disease. 

Isolation  and  destruction  of  affected  animals;  thorough  disin- 
fection of  premises;  raise  offspring  on  new  or  uninfected  pastures. 
No  satisfactory  treatment  is  known. 

Describe  a  case  of  epizootic  lymphangitis,  giving  the  history,  symp- 
toms and  prognosis. 

(This  disease  is  unknown  in  this  country;  the  cases  so  diagnosed 
are  probably  * '  sporothricosis, ' '  which  is  caused  by  a  sporothrix  and 
presents  similar  symptoms.) 

History:  Wound  on  the  leg;  unthrift;^  for  past  one  or  two 
months ;  development  of  multiple,  nodular  swellings  on  the  wounded 
leg;  bursting  of  nodules  and  a  discharge  of  thick,  yellowish,  oily 
pus;  nodules  vary  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  hen's  egg;  scar  formation; 
disease  gradually  extended  up  the  leg,  along  the  lymphatic  vessels 
to  the  inguinal  lymph-gands. 

Symptoms:  Buds,  ulcers  or  sores,  characterized  by  exuberant 
granulations,  fungoid  appearance,  indurated  base  and  well-defined 
edges,  discharging  yellowish,  oily  pus ;  nodules  of  various  sizes ;  in- 
duration of  inguinal  lymph-glands  and  swelling  of  the  lymphatics ; 
normal  temperature  and  good  appetite. 

Prognosis:  Usually  recover  with  a  resultant  pachydermatitis 
of  the  affected  leg.    Mortality,  7  to  10  per  cent. 

What  is  the  treatment  for  epizootic  lymphangitis? 

Antiseptics ;  open  abscesses ;  curette ;  cauterize.  Give  potassium 
iodide  internally. 


180  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  actinomycosis  in  the  cow. 

Symptoms:  Deformity  of  the  head  or  other  parts  affected  by 
the  neoplasms;  hard,  dense  and  sometimes  suppurating  tumors  de- 
velop on  the  lips,  tongue,  maxillary  bone,  pharynx,  skin,  lymph- 
glands,  lungs  and  occasionally  in  other  organs.  The  symptoms, 
therefore,  are  various.  Difficulty  in  prehension  and  mastication  of 
food ;  teeth  loosen ;  profuse  salivation ;  difficulty  in  swallowing  and 
breathing;  in  a  pulmonary  affection,  tlie  symptoms  resemble  those 
of  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs.  The  disease  progresses  slowly ;  a  course 
of  several  years  in  mild  cases;  die  from  inanition  due  to  inability 
to  eat. 

Treatment:  Surgical  removal  of  tumors;  cauterize  the  wound 
formed  and  apply  tincture  of  iodine  freely.  Internally,  give  potas- 
sium iodide  in  repeated  doses  until  signs  of  iodism  appear,  then 
discontinue  for  a  time  and  repeat  until  a  cure  is  effected. 

Give  the  cause,  course  and  symptoms  of  glanders. 

Cause :  Bacterium  mallei,  also  called  bacillus  mallei. 

Course :  Acute  form,  a  few  weeks ;  the  chronic  form,  one  or  more 
years. 

Symptoms :  Variously  manifested  as  nasal,  pulmonary  and  cuta- 
neous (farcy)  forms.  Acute  form  starts  with  a  chill,  fever,  muco- 
purulent nasal  discharge  which  is  sometimes  mixed  with  blood ;  one 
or  both  nostrils  swollen,  mucous  membrane  of  a  dark-red  or  violet 
color ;  and  contains  numerous  nodules  which  after  a  few  days  become 
eroded,  leaving  ulcers;  submaxillary  lymph-glands  enlarged,  hard 
and  show  little  heat  or  tenderness;  cutaneous  form  (farcy)  may  or 
may  not  be  present;  this  form  is  characterized  by  swellings  or 
nodules  (farcy  buds  or  farcy  buttons)  along  the  superficial  lym- 
phatics, usually  of  a  hind  limb.  The  throat  and  lungs  may  become 
involved,  as  shown  by  a  violent  cough  and  dyspnoea.  The  acute 
form  runs  a  rapid  course  to  a  fatal  termination. 

Chronic  form:  Develops  insidiously  with  nasal  lesions,  ulcers 
or  star-shaped  cicatrices,  a  sticky,  blood-streaked  nasal  discharge; 
slate-colored  mucous  membrane;  submaxillary  lymph-glands  hard, 
indurated  and  adherent  to  the  adjacent  structures.  Appetite  vari- 
able, gradual  loss  of  flesh ;  intermittent,  slight  fever ;  cx'dematous 
swellings;  cough  due  to  involvement  of  the  lungs;  farcy  buds  may 
be  present. 

What  animals  suffer  from  actinobacillosis?     Give  diagnosis  and  treat- 
ment. 
Cattle  and  sheep. 
Diagnosis   depends   upon   the   finding   of   the   bacillus   which 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  181 

arranges  itself  in  the  tissues  similar  to  the  ray  fungus  of  actino- 
mycosis. The  four  cases  that  were  observed  in  Canada,  in  1904, 
are  the  only  ones  ever  reported  in  America.  It  is  a  very  rare  dis- 
ease; symptoms  and  treatment  are  the  same  as  in  actinomycosis. 

Describe  the  symptoms  and  course  of  tuberculosis  in  cattle. 

The  sj-mptoms  vary  according  to  the  course  of  the  disease. 
There  are  two  forms,  acute  or  miliary,  and  chronic.  The  latter  is 
by  far  the  more  common.  Acute  form :  Rapid  loss  of  flesh,  anorexia, 
cough,  weakness,  dyspnoea,  slight  fever,  increased  pulse,  enlarged 
Ijrmph-glands ;  very  rapid  course  terminating  in  death  in  a  few 
months. 

Chronic  form :  Symptoms  vary  according  to  location  and  extent 
of  lesions.  Many  badly  affected  cases  show  no  prominent  symptoms. 
In  general  we  observe:  emaciation  (tubercular  cachexia),  although 
the  appetite  remains  good;  staring  coat;  cough,  especially  if  the 
lungs  are  involved.  The  palpable  lymph-glands  are  painless,  hard 
and  enlarged.  Enlarged  mediastinal  lymph-glands  may  press  on 
the  cesophagus  and  bronchi,  thereby  producing  tympany  and 
dyspnoea.  Indigestion,  shown  by  diarrhoea  and  constipation,  fol- 
lows tuberculosis  of  the  stomach  and  intestines.  Enlargement  and 
hardening  of  the  udder,  and  changes  in  the  milk  are  observed  in 
advanced  cases  of  udder  affection.  Nervous  derangement  indicates 
involvement  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  In  tuberculosis  of  the 
bones  and  joints,  the  parts  are  enlarged  and  lameness  is  shown. 

What  is  dourine? 

Dourine  is  a  chronic,  contagious  affection  of  breeding  horses, 
transmitted  by  copulation,  and  is  characterized  first  by  local  lesions 
on  the  external  genitals,  such  as  swellings,  ulcers  and  scars,  which 
is  followed  later  by  an  affection  of  the  nervous  system,  as  shown 
by  hyperaesthesia  and  paralysis. 

Give  the  cause  and  symptoms  of  dourine. 

Trypanosoma  equiperdum,  transmitted  by  contagion  and  almost 
exclusively  by  the  act  of  coition. 

Symptoms :  In  the  stallion,  from  one  week  to  two  months  after 
infection  a  cold  painless  swelling  develops  on  the  glans  penis, 
sheath,  scrotum  and  abdomen;  an  urethral  discharge,  vesicles  and 
ulcers  may  occur,  although  not  constant;  paraphymosis,  semi-erec- 
tions, slight  fever,  strangury,  paresis  of  hind  limbs,  emaciation, 
weakness,  dementia,  decubitus  and  skin  eruption  are  some  of  the 
various  sjTnptoms  presented.  Course:  2  to  3  months  to  as  many 
years,  terminating  usually  by  death.     In  mares:  vulvar  swelling, 


182  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

leueorrhoea,  eruptions  on  the  mucosa  of  the  vagina,  erections  of  the 
clitoris,  straining,  inguinal  swellings,  sterility  or  abortion,  lameness, 
trembling,  anamia  and  emaciation,  ending  the  same  as  in  the  stallion. 

What  is  the  treatment  for  dourine  ? 

Local  antiseptics;  arsenical  preparations  internally.  "Sal- 
varsan"  is  being  strongly  advocated.  Prevention:  isolate,  prevent 
copulation,  castrate  and  use  sanitary  police  measures. 

What  is  infectious  abortion? 

Infectious  abortion  is  the  premature  expulsion  of  the  foetus,  seen 
in  cows,  less  commonly  in  mares,  due  to  an  infectious  catarrh  of 
the  uterus  transmitted  by  copulation  or  contagion.  Infectious  abor- 
tion of  cows  is  due  to  the  baciUus  of  Bang.  Etiology  is  not  fully 
determined  in  the  mare. 

Granular  venereal  disease,  which  is  quite  prevalent,  is  frequently 
associated  with  abortion  in  cows. 

(Name  some  of  the  more  recent  methods  of  diagnosing  infectious  abor- 
tion. 
Agglutination  test,  complement  fixation  test  and  the  allergic  test 
with  ' '  abortin. ' '    The  allergic  test  is  not  reliable  at  present. 

Diseases  of  the  Blood  and  Blood-forming  Organs 

What  is  "  swamp  fever  "  or  infectious  anaemia? 

Infectious  anaemia  is  a  specific  infectious  disease  of  the  horse 
which  is  manifested  sometimes  as  an  acute,  at  other  times  as  a 
chronic,  septicaemia,  and  causes  a  destruction  of  great  numbers  of 
red  blood-corpuscles.  It  is  caused  by  an  ultramicroscopic  micro- 
organism. 

Define  anaemia,  leukaemia  and  haemophilia. 

Anaemia  is  a  condition  in  which  the  blood  is  deficient  either  in 
quantity  (oligemia)  or  in  quality  (oligocythasmia). 

Leukaemia  is  a  fatal  disease  in  which  there  is  a  marked  increase 
in  the  number  of  leucocytes  in  the  blood,  together  with  an  enlarge- 
ment and  proliferation  of  the  lymphoid  tissue  of  the  spleen, 
lymphatic  glands  and  bone-marrow. 

Haemophilia  is  a  condition  marked  by  a  strong  and  abnormal 
tendency  to  bleeding,  or  hemorrhage,  and  is  usually  hereditary. 

State  the  causes  of  anaemia  and  give  treatment. 

Causes:  Inanition,  unsanitary  surroundings,  overwork,  poisons, 
lack  of  exercise,  hemorrhage,  persistent  diarrhea,  long-lasting  sup- 
puration, copious  transudation,  chronic  diseases,  parasites,  infec- 
tion, etc. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  183 

Treatment :  Remove  cause ;  correct  diet ;  give  tonics  such  as  iron 
sulphate  or  reduced  iron,  arsenic,  etc. ;  transfusion  of  blood  or 
infusion  of  normal  saline  solution. 

Where  is  the  filaria  immitis  found?  What  condition  does  it  produce? 
The  embryos  of  this  parasite  are  found  in  the  circulating  blood 
and  the  mature  worms  in  the  right  heart  of  dogs.  Conditions  pro- 
duced are  ancemia,  emaciation,  increased  appetite,  dropsical  swell- 
ings due  to  emboli,  heart  disturbances,  etc.  It  runs  a  course  of 
several  years. 

Discuss  briefly  the  etiology  and  prevention  of  haemoglobinuria. 

Hjsmoglobinuria  (azoturia)  occurs  almost  invariably  in  well- 
conditioned,  plethoric  horses,  accustomed  to  regular  work,  after 
a  day  of  idleness  without  reduction  in  the  amount  of  rations.  It 
is  rarely  seen  in  poorly  nourished  horses.  Cold  is  thought  to  be  an 
etiological  factor  as  more  cases  are  seen  in  winter  than  in  summer. 
It  is  probably  an  auto-intoxication,  the  exact  nature  of  which  is 
undetermined. 

Prevention:  Give  regular  exercise  and  reduce  rations  when 
idle. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  azoturia. 

Symptoms:  Soon  after  leaving  the  stable  in  apparently  perfect 
condition,  the  patient  sweats,  knuckles  over  on  one  or  both  hind, 
rarely  in  the  fore,  fetlocks,  falls  down  and  cannot  arise  except  to 
stand  in  the  knuckled  attitude ;  cerebral  excitement  may  or  may  not 
be  present ;  the  muscles  of  the  gluteal  region  are  hard  and  swollen ; 
urine  is  coffee-colored  or  black ;  pulse  full  and  accelerated,  tempera- 
ture normal  or  slightly  elevated. 

Treatment:  Nothing  specific.  Quick-acting  cathartics  such  as 
arecoliue  and  Epsom  salts;  hot  blankets  over  the  loins  may  help; 
evacuate  the  bladder  regularly;  plenty  of  bedding  should  be  pro- 
vided and  the  patient  should  be  turned  over  every  4  to  6  hours. 
Bromides  or  chloral  hydrate  may  be  given  per  os,  or  cannabis 
indica,  intravenously  if  the  patient  is  restless.  Slings  are  used  by 
some  but  should  not  be  used  unless  the  patient  can  stand  well,  in 
which  case  they  are  needless. 

Diseases  op  Metabolism 

Give  the  symptoms,  course  and  termination  of  osteoporosis. 

Inappetency,  lifelessness,  stiffness,  shifting  lameness,  "tied-in" 
gait,  stumbling,  distortion  of  the  bones  of  the  face  and  lower  jaw, 


184  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

polyarthritis,  "tucked-up"  abdomen,  pleuritic  ridge,  emaciation, 
fractures,  tearing  away  of  ligamentous  and  tendinous  attachments, 
etc.,  are  among  the  prominent  symptoms  of  the  disease. 

Course:  Chronic,  running  several  months  or  years,  ending  in 
death.  Improvement  may  follow  under  proper  handling  if  taken 
early,  but  relapses  are  common. 

What  is  the  treatment  for  osteoporosis? 

Change  of  feed  and  environment.  Calcium  phosphate,  in  two- 
drachm  doses  three  times  daily,  may  be  iiseful.  Best  to  turn  the 
horse  out  in  pasture  and  make  him  ''rough  it"  for  a  year. 

Give  cause,  symptoms  and  treatment  for  rachitis. 

Causes:  Hereditary,  lack  of  lime  salts  in  the  food,  unhygienic 
conditions. 

Symptoms :  Unthrifty  appearance,  easily  fatigued,  recumbency, 
stiffness ;  tender,  swollen  joints ;  enlarged  epiphyses,  long  bones  bent ; 
brittleness  of  bones  and  loosening  of  teeth ;  diarrhoea. 

Treatment:  Principally  hygienic;  provide  fresh  air  and  sun- 
shine ;  feed  nutritious  rations,  rich  in  earthy  salts,  phosphates,  bone 
dust,  lime  water,  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  etc. 

Name  the  different  forms  o£  diabetes  and  give  the  treatment  for  each. 

Diabetes  mellitus  is  characterized  by  the  passing  of  a  large 
amount  of  urine,  containing  an  excessive  amount  of  sugar. 

Diabetes  insipidus  is  a  chronic  disease  marked  by  great  thirst 
and  the  passage  of  a  large  amount  of  urine  but  no  excess  of  sugar. 

Diabetes  mellitus  is  practically  incurable ;  treat  by  limiting  the 
amount  of  carbohydrates  and  feed  more  fats  and  proteids.  Car- 
nivora  may  be  fed  fat  meat,  eggs,  buttermilk.  Opium  and  Carlsbad 
salts  are  said  to  be  helpful. 

Diabetes  insipidus  is  unsatisfactory  to  treat.  It  is  usually  due 
to  chronic  interstitial  nephritis.  Give  vasoconstrictors,  as  ergot, 
valerian,  etc. 

Diseases  of  the  Urinaky  Organs 

Define  pyelitis.    How  diagnosed  and  treated? 

Inflammation  of  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney.  Diagnosed  by  micro- 
scopical examination  of  the  urine  and  finding  epithelial  cells  from 
the  pelvis,  blood-cells  and  pus.    Usual  symptoms  of  nephritis. 

Treatment :  Abundance  of  pure  water,  sodium  bicarbonate,  urin- 
ary antiseptics,  hot  fomentations  over  loins. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  185 

State  the  more  common  causes  of  urinary  cystitis.  Give  diagnosis  and 
treatment. 

Causes:  Diuretics,  retention  of  urine,  infection,  calculi,  para- 
sites, unclean  catheter,  adjacent  inflammation. 

Diagnosis:  Cloudy  urine,  containing  shreds  of  mucous  mem- 
branes, pus  cells,  blood  and  triple  phosphates  and  of  an  alkaline 
reaction ;  painful  urination ;  bladder-walls  tender  and  thickened. 

Treatment:  Disinfect  bladder  by  irrigating  with  a  3  per  cent, 
solution  of  boric  acid  and  methylene  blue  internally.  Give  an  abun- 
dance of  pure  water.    Surgically  remove  calculi. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  uraemic  poisoning  in  the  dog. 

Occurs  usually  in  connection  with  acute  or  chronic  nephritis; 
dulness,  chill,  high  fever,  vomiting,  convulsions,  paralysis,  Cheyne- 
Stokes  breathing,  coma  and  death.    Uriniferous  odor  to  the  skin. 

Treatment:  Venesection  followed  by  infusion  of  normal  saline 
solution.  Withdraw  urine  and  produce  sweating  with  pilocarpus. 
Move  bowels;  control  convulsions  with  bromides. 

Give  the  common  causes  and  the  treatment  for  acute  nephritis. 

Occurs  most  commonly  as  a  secondary  disease.    May  be  caused  by 
•  cold,  drugs,  such  as  arsenic,  phosphorus,  etc.,  irritant  diuretics, 
toxins  from  specific  fevers,  infection,  suppression  of  the  urine, 
calculi,  etc. 

Treatment:  Relieve  the  kidneys  as  much  as  possible  by  giving 
diaphoretics  and  purges.  Give  urinary  antiseptics  as  methylene 
blue  and  quiet  pain  with  bromides  or  chloral  hydrate. 

What  are  the  causes  of  polyuria?    How  treated? 

Chronic  interstitial  nephritis,  tumors  of  the  brain,  nervous  dis- 
orders, mouldy  feeds,  diuretic  drugs,  cold,  habitual  constipation, 
suppression  of  perspiration. 

Treatment :  Remove  cause,  change  food,  open  bowels ;  drugs  are 
useless  in  most  cases. 

What  are  the  different  steps  in  the  examination  of  the  urine? 

A.  Macroscopical :  Determine  quantity,  color,  transparency, 
consistency,  odor  and  specific  gravity. 

B.  Chemical:  Reaction,  albumin,  indican,  bile  pigments  and 
sugar. 

C.  Microscopical :  Centrifuge  unfiltered  urine  and  examine  sedi- 
ment under  the  microscope  for  casts,  epithelial  cells,  blood-cells, 
pus-cells  and  unorganized  sediments  (uric  acid  crystals,  etc.). 


186  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

In  what  conditions  do  we  find  albuminuria? 

Nephritis,  organic  heart  disease,  emphysema,  fevers,  pneumonia, 
diabetes,  anaemia,  leukemia,  hydremia,  htematuria,  hiemoglobiuuria, 
pregnancy.    Often  occurs  in  small  amounts  in  healthy  individuals. 

Give  causes  and  treatment  for  haematuria. 

Nephritis,  injuries  to  the  kidneys,  irritant  plants  with  diuretic 
principle,  certain  drugs,  wounds  and  inflammation  of  the  bladder, 
calculi,  urethritis  and  infectious  diseases  as  anthrax  and  Texas 
fever  are  among  the  common  causes. 

Treatment:  Determine  the  cause  and  remove  it.  Give  urinary 
antiseptics  as  methylene  blue,  balsam  copaiba,  etc, ;  remove  calculi, 
irrigate  bladder  with  boric  acid  solution. 

Diseases  op  the  Circulatory  Organs 

Describe  the  symptoms  of  pericarditis  in  the  bovine  species. 

Usually  of  traumatic  origin.  Digestive  disturbances,  sensitive- 
ness to  pressure  in  the  region  of  the  reticulum,  tympany  of  rumen 
after  meals,  hurried  breathing,  groaning,  irregular  pulse,  friction 
sounds  synchronous  with  the  heart-beat  followed  later  by  splashing 
or  metallic  tinkling  sound;  dropsical  swellings  in  the  dew-lap  and 
sides  of  sternum ;  pleurisy  and  pneumonia  may  complicate  matters. 

State  the  usual  causes  (dietetic  and  anatomic)  of  traumatic  pericar- 
ditis in  cattle  and  goats.     Give  prevention  and  treatment. 

Anatomically,  the  reticulum,  into  which  most  foreign  bodies  are 
passed,  lies  against  the  diaphragm.  On  expiration  and  during 
rumination,  the  diaphragm  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  pericar- 
dium and  the  sharp  objects  are  thus  directed  into  the  latter. 

Dietetic  causes:  Ruminants  swallow  food  with  little  masti- 
cation ;  pins,  needles,  hay-wire,  pieces  of  tin,  etc.,  if  in  the  feed,  are 
readily  swallowed. 

Prevention:  Avoid  the  presence  of  foreign  bodies  in  the  feed. 
Cut  hay-wires  in  the  middle  instead  of  near  the  joints. 

Treatment :  Generally  useless ;  give  laxatives ;  stand  animal  with 
front  parts  elevated.  Surgically  remove  the  offending  object 
through  the  rumen  or  chest  wall. 

Give  causes  and   symptoms  of  insufficiency  of  the   cardiac   valves, 

auriculoventricular  and  semilunar. 

Insufficiency  may  be  caused  by  endocarditis  which  leaves  the 

valves  thickened  and  rigid ;  cardiac  hypertrophy,  tumors,  parasites, 

aneurism  of  aorta  near  the  heart;  overexertion  may  injure  the 

%'alves. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  187 

Insufficiency  of  the  right  auriculoventricular  valve  is  shown  by 
a  sj^stolic  murmur,  a  feeble  pulse,  distention  of  the  veins,  jugular 
pulse  and  a?dema  of  the  extremities. 

Insufficiency  of  the  left  auriculoventricular  valve  is  accom- 
panied by  a  systolic  murmur,  passive  congestion  of  the  lungs,  indura- 
tion of  the  lung  tissue,  pulmonary  cedema,  pulse  slightly  weaker, 
dyspnoea  on  exercise. 

Insufficiency  of  the  semilunar  valve  of  the  aorta  is  usually  accom- 
panied by  hypertrophy,  which  gives  an  increased  cardiac  dulness 
on  percussion,  a  stronger  impulse  on  palpation  and  a  full,  strong, 
bounding  pulse;  thrill  of  the  wall  of  the  thorax  over  the  heart;  a 
diastolic  murmur  which  shows  its  greatest  intensity  in  the  left  fourth 
intercostal  space  below  the  shoulder  line. 

Insufficiency  of  the  semilunar  valve  of  the  pulmonary  artery 
shows  the  same  as  the  preceding,  except  there  is  no  change  in  the 
pulse  and  it  is  usually  accompanied  by  respiratory  disturbances. 

Give  the  treatment  for  valvular  disease  of  the  heart. 

Secure  rest  for  the  patient.  Give  heart  tonics  as,  digitalis, 
strophanthus,  etc.     Slaughter  meat-producing  animals. 

What  are  the  usual  causes  of  dropsy  of  the  abdomen,  limbs  and  beneath 
the  venter? 
Valvular  heart  disease,  cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  diseases  of  the 
kidneys,  circulatory  obstructions  which  produce  venous  congestion 
as,  tumors,  aneurisms,  etc. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  aneurism. 

Causes:  Debilitated  vascular  walls,  violence  which  may  rup- 
ture the  arterial  coat,  violent  exercise,  increased  blood-pressure, 
obstruction  by  embolus  and  arteritis. 

Symptoms:  Depends  on  the  location.  In  general,  we  note:  a 
soft  tumor  pulsating  with  the  heart ;  a  double  rushing  sound,  palpi- 
tation, cardiac  weakness,  rapid  fatigue,  vertigo,  and  venous 
congestion. 

Treatment:  Unsatisfactory.  Rest  the  patient;  give  a  low  diet; 
apply  compression  or  ligature  above  and  below  the  aneurism.  In- 
ternal aneurism,  which  is  seldom  diagnosed,  is  irremediable. 

In  what  animals  and  at  what  age  is  cyanosis  liable  to  occur? 

In  the  new-born  animal.  It  is  due  to  the  failure  of  the  foramen 
ovale  to  close. 


188  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Diseases  op  the  Respiratory  Organs 

Define  epistaxis  and  give  its  causes. 

Bleeding  from  the  nose.  It  may  be  due  to  traumatism,  violent 
exertion,  parasites,  granulating  tumors,  ulceration  of  the  nasal  pas- 
sages, anthrax,  glanders,  purpura  hemorrhagica,  haemophilia,  etc. 

State  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  nasal  gleet. 

Nasal  gleet  or  chronic  rhinitis  may  follow  the  acute  form  or  it 
may  be  due  to  diseased  teeth;  infection  or  catarrh  of  the  nasal 
sinuses.    It  is  also  seen  in  glanders. 

Symptoms :  A  continuous,  unilateral  or  bilateral  nasal  discharge 
of  a  thick,  creamy  consistency.  The  submaxillary  lymph-glands  are 
hard  and  enlarged ;  ulcers  sometimes  form  on  the  mucous  membrane ; 
the  temperature  remains  normal  and  the  patient  becomes  anaemic 
and  emaciated. 

Treatment :  Locally,  apply  astringent  antiseptics,  such  as  nasal 
douches  with  Dobell's  solution.    Internally,  give  tonics. 

What  parasites  attack  the  throat  in  solipeds?     Give  symptoms,  pre- 
vention and  treatment  in  each  case. 

HcBmopis  sanguisuga  {Jiorse  leech)  attaches  itself  to  the  walls 
of  the  pharynx  and  larynx  and  produces  cough,  laryngitis,  dys- 
phagia and  epistaxis.  Prevent  by  avoiding  waters  harboring  the 
parasite.  Treat  by  throwing  salt  solution  on  them  and  remove 
with  a  dry  towel  or  forceps. 

CEstrus  larvcB  (hots)  are  sometimes  attached  to  the  pharynx  and 
larynx.  They  produce  chronic  irritation,  cough  and  dyspnoea. 
Prevention  depends  upon  the  destruction  of  the  bots  and  the  mature 
fly,  the  oestrus  equi.  Treatment  consists  of  removing  the  bots  with 
the  forceps  or  hands.    Laryngotomy  may  be  necessary. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  oedema  of  the  glottis. 

Sudden  appearance  of  dyspnoea  and  an  extensive  painless,  oede- 
matous  swelling  in  the  laryngeal  region.  The  temperature  is  nor- 
mal; sweating,  an  anxious  expression  and  paroxysm  of  coughing 
are  observed. 

Treatment:  Perform  tracheotomy  and  insert  tube.  Apply 
astringent  and  absorbing  agents  externally.  Burrow's  lotion  or 
white  lotion  could  be  used  on  cotton  and  held  in  place  by  a  throat 
bandage. 

State  the  usual  causes  of  inhalation  bronchitis  and  pneumonia. 

Faulty  methods  of  drenching  which  allows  medicine  to  enter  the 
trachea;  dysphagia  due  to  pharyngitis,  tetanus,  etc.     Sometimes 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  189 

follows  chloroform  anaesthesia;  inhalation  of  smoke  or  irritant 
gases ;  regurgitation  of  food  when  in  a  comatose  condition  as  in  milk 
fever.    May  follow  tracheotomy  operation. 

Give  the  diagnostic  symptoms,  prevention  and  treatment  of  inhalation 
pneumonia. 

Pevei,  anorexia,  cough,  bronchial  rales,  dyspnoea,  fetid  odor  to 
the  expired  air,  mucopurulent  nasal  discharge  containing  shreds  of 
necrotic  tissue ;  dulness  in  the  lower  part  of  the  thorax. 

Prevention:  Guard  against  causative  factors.  Be  carefx  .m 
drenching  and  see  that  no  part  of  the  medicine  enters  the  trjielaea. 
Don 't  drench  cows  with  milk  fever,  nor  horses  with  tetanus,  pharyn- 
gitis or  other  conditions  in  which  there  is  danger  of  inhalation  of 
the  fluid. 

Treatment:  Antiseptic  inhalations  of  the  vapor  or  eucalyptus, 
tar,  carbolic  acid  or  turpentine.  Intratracheal  irrigation  with  a 
1  per  cent,  solution  of  hydrogen  peroxide  in  a  normal  salt  solution. 
Give  stimulants  and  antipyretics. 

What  domestic  animal  is  most  susceptible  to  bronchial  asthma?  Give 
causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  for  this  disease. 

The  dog  is  most  subject  to  bronchial  asthma. 

Causes:  Nervous  origin,  reflexly  from  pneumogastric  irritation 
due  to  digestive  disorders.  The  muscle  fibres  of  the  bronchi  contract 
and  narrow  the  lumen,  thus  bringing  on  paroxysms  of  coughing. 

Symptoms:  Obesity,  sluggishness,  paroxysmal  cough  and 
dyspnoea.     Usually  have  digestive  disorders. 

Treatment :  Antispasmodics  per  rectum  or  subcutem ;  cathartics ; 
dietary  restrictions  to  lessen  obesity. 

What  animals  suffer  from  strongylus  rufescens?     Name  the  disease 
•  produced  and  the  symptoms. 
The  sheep  and  goat. 

The  disease  is  variously  known  as  verminous  bronchitis,  bron- 
chial strongylosis,  hoose,  husk  and  paper  skin  disease. 

Symptoms:  Occurs  enzootically;  loss  of  appetite,  unthriftiness, 
emaciation,  fever,  dyspnoea,  fits  of  coughing,  convulsions,  anaemia 
and  emaciation. 

What  is  the  treatment  for  verminous  bronchitis  in  calves? 

Inhalations  of  oil  of  eucalyptus  and  turpentine,  in  a  vapor  of 
steam.  Intratracheal  injection  of  15  to  20  c.c.  of  a  5  per  cent, 
solution  of  creolin  in  olive  oil.    Give  stimulants  and  nourishing  food. 


190  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  cause,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  gapes  in  fowls. 

Cause :  This  disease  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  parasite,  synga- 
mus  trachealis,  in  the  trachea. 

Symptoms:  The  bird  gapes,  sneezes,  coughs  and  discharges 
mucus,  which  often  contains  the  worm,  from  the  mouth;  dulness, 
drooping  of  wings,  inappetency.    Worms  may  be  seen  in  the  trachea. 

Treatment:  Remove  the  worm  with  forceps  or  a  loop  of  horse 
hair. 

S'  tate  the  immediate  and  the  remote  causes  of  acute  pulmonary  conges- 
'  tion.     Give  the  treatment. 

The  immediate  cause  is  a  rush  of  blood  to  the  lungs.  Remote 
causes  are:  fat,  plethoric  condition;  sudden  chilling;  infectious 
diseases;  overfeeding;  hot  weather;  heart  diseases  and  venous 
stasis. 

Treatment:  Venesection,  counter-irritation  over  thorax  and 
friction  to  extremities;  heart  stimulants,  plenty  of  fresh  air. 
Usually  terminates  in  pneumonia  or  recovery  in  24  hours. 

Give  the  distinctive  symptoms  of  bronchitis,  pneumonia  and  pleurisy, 
respectively,  in  the  early  and  fully  developed  stages. 

Early  stages:  Bronchitis,  dry  hard  cough,  normal  percussion 
sound,  bilateral,  sibilant  rales  and  dyspncea.  Pneumonia  (pulmon- 
ary congestion),  restrained  cough,  increased  resonance  on  percus- 
sion, unilateral  crepitant  rales,  dyspncea  more  marked.  Pleurisy, 
painful  cough,  tenderness  to  percussion,  bilateral  friction  sounds, 
pleuritic  ridge,  high  temperature. 

Fully  developed  stages:  Bronchitis,  resonance  on  percussion, 
mucous  rales,  temperature  high.  Pneumonia,  dulness  on  percus- 
sion, absence  of  vesicular  murmur,  temperature  high  throughout  the 
attack.  Pleurisy,  temperature  lower,  flatness  on  percussion  bounded 
by  a  horizontal  line,  increased  resonance  above.  Tenderness  on 
percussion. 

Give  the  symptoms  of  gangrene  of  the  lungs. 

Rapid  respiration,  moist  rales,  purulent  nasal  discharge  contain- 
ing shreds  of  necrotic  tissue,  fetid  odor  to  breath,  high  fever,  rapid 
weak  pulse  and  great  prostration. 

Give  the  symptoms,  course  and  treatment  of  acute  diffused  pleuritis. 
Chill,  fever,  hard  pulse;  rapid,  shallow  breathing,  patient  re- 
mains standing,  pleuritic  ridge,  suppressed  cough,  tenderness  in 
the   intercostal   region,   groaning  when   turned   sharply,   friction 
sounds.    Later,  there  appears  a  horizontal  line  of  dulness,  splashing 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  191 

metallic  tinkling,  cfidemas.  Course  may  run  from  a  few  days  to 
several  weeks,  depending  upon  the  continuance  of  the  hydrothorax. 
Treatment:  In  early  stages,  venesection,  counter-irritants  on 
chest,  such  as  mustard  plasters,  oil  of  mustard  and  oil  silk  jacket ; 
apply  friction  to  legs  and  bandage  them  warmly.  Give  a  laxative 
diet.  Later,  thoracentesis  may  be  advisable  to  remove  the  exudate. 
Give  diuretics  and  stimulants. 

Describe  a  case  of  pleurisy  in  the  dog. 

About  the  same  as  previously  mentioned  in  the  horse.  Dogs 
sit  on  haunches  and  pant.  In  case  of  effusion,  the  horizontal  line  of 
dulness  changes  with  the  different  attitudes  the  dog  may  assume. 

Give  the  cause,  sjmiptoms  and  treatment  of  hydrothorax. 

Caused  by  pleurisy,  venous  stasis,  heart  disease,  kidney  disease, 
an£emia,  parasites,  etc. 

Symptoms:  Dyspncea,  horizontal  line  of  dulness  in  lower  part 
of  thorax,  no  fever;  general  dropsy,  if  from  heart  and  kidney 
diseases. 

Treatment:  Diuretics,  derivatives,  thoracentesis,  laxative  diet 
and  tonics.    Usually  incurable. 

Describe  the  symptoms  of  pulmonary  emphysema.     Outline  treatment. 

Double  expiratory  movement,  husky,  wheezing  cough,  dilated 
nostrils,  dyspnoea  easily  produced  by  exercise,  muggy  weather  or 
a  full  stomach.  Digestive  troubles  often  accompany  heaves.  Occa- 
sionally there  will  be  seen  a  glairy  nasal  discharge.  Cardiac 
weakness. 

Treatment:  Dietetic  measures  such  as  a  laxative  diet,  concen- 
trated foods  and  a  restricted  amount  of  hay  or  straw.  Give  arsenic 
in  graduated  doses.    Belladonna  is  useful  to  suppress  the  cough. 

How  would  you  guard  against  fraudulent  attempts  to  conceal  the 

symptoms  of  heaves? 

Keep  the  horse  under  observation  for  48  hours.    Give  plenty  of 

hay  and  water  and  exercise.    The  dilated  nostrils  are  hard  to  conceal. 

Adrenalin  chloride  aggravates  respiration  and  may  be  an  aid  to 

diagnosis. 

Diseases  of  the  Digestive  Organs 

Define  glossitis  and  give  causes  for  same. 

Glossitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  and  sub- 
stance of  the  tongue.  It  may  be  due  to  mechanical,  thermal  and 
chemical  agents.  Infection  should  be  reckoned  with,  especially 
specific  infections,  as  in  foot  and  mouth  disease,  lip  and  leg  ulcera- 
tion of  sheep,  etc. 


192  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

What  animals  and  what  organs  are  infested  by  linguatnla  taenoides? 
Give  diagnosis  and  treatment,  both  therapeutic  and  pre- 
ventive. 
This  parasite  infests  the  nasal  chambers,  turbinated  bones,  fron- 
tal sinuses  and  pharynx  of  the  dog  and  occasionally  the  horse. 

The  diagnosis  is  based  upon  sneezing,  coughing,  rubbing  nose, 
dyspncea,  epistaxis,  convulsions  and  finding  the  parasite  in  the 
discharge. 

Treatment:  Nasal  douche  of  benzene  5  parts,  and  olive  oil  100 
parts.  Prevent  dogs  from  eating  the  raw  offal  of  sheep.  Destroy 
the  heads  and  carcasses  of  dead  sheep  containing  the  larvie. 

How  does  vomiting  in  cattle  differ  from  regurgitation?  Where  does 
the  ejected  food  come  from?  How  is  vomiting  diagnosed 
and  treated? 

In  vomition,  there  is  a  greater  effort  made  and  the  quantity 
is  so  great  that  it  runs  from  the  mouth,  whereas,  in  regurgitation,  no 
effort  is  required  and  the  amount  is  so  small  that  it  is  retained  in 
the  mouth.  The  ejected  material  comes  from  the  rumen.  Vomit- 
ing is  diagnosed  by  the  uneasiness,  straining  and  peculiar  smell  of 
the  ejected  material.  Treatment  is  seldom  called  for  as  the  act 
relieves  the  patient  and  removes  the  cause.  If  too  prolonged,  give 
sedatives,  such  as  bromides  and  chloral  and  empty  the  bowels 
with  liberal  doses  of  Epsom  salts. 

What  parasites  affect  the  gullet  of  cattle  ?  State  other  habitats  of  any 
of  these  parasites. 
Spiroptera  scutata  and  the  larvss  of  the  oestrus  (hypoderma) 
bovis  are  also  found  in  the  stomach  of  cattle  and  the  gullet  of  the 
horse.  Psorospermia  oviforme  (coccidia)  inhabit  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  gullet  and  various  other  organs,  including  the  liver, 
intestines,  etc.,  of  sheep,  goats,  pigs,  rabbits  and  man.  Sarcosporidia 
invade  the  muscles  of  the  ox,  pig,  sheep  and  horse. 

Describe  the  symptoms  of  a  case  that  on  post-mortem  examination 

reveals  a  ruptured  stomach. 

The  abdomen  enormously  distended  with  gas  on  the  left  side 

under  the  ribs.     Colicky  pains,  dyspnoea,  belching  of  gas,  retching 

and  regurgitation  of  stomach  contents.    Sudden  paleness  of  mucous 

membranes,  syncope  and  death. 

Give  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  tympanites  in  cattle. 
Also  called  "hoove,"  "haven,"  and  Moating. 
Caused  by  gaseous  fermentation  of  the  contents  of  the  rumen. 
Overfeeding  on  green  foods,  especially  clover  when  wet  with  dew. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  193 

Paresis  of  the  rumen  may  cause  or  follow  tympanites.  Poisons, 
spoiled  foods  and  foreign  bodies  are  also  causative  factors. 

Symptoms :  Abnormal  distention  of  the  left  side  of  the  abdomen. 
Drum-like  sound  on  percussion,  crepitation  heard  due  to  gas  bubbles. 
Suspension  of  rumination,  belching,  rapid  breathing,  frothy  foam 
from  mouth,  protrusion  of  anus  and  sometimes  bloody  f^ces.  Death 
in  15  to  30  minutes. 

Treatment:  Puncture  the  rumen  with  trocar.  Pass  stomach 
tube  and  siphon  off  the  contents  of  the  rumen.  Administer  through 
the  tube,  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  oil  of  turpentine  or  pepper- 
mint. Follow  with  a  large  dose  of  Epsom  salts  when  the  tympany 
subsides.    Any  treatment  must  be  prompt  and  energetic. 

Describe  the  symptoms  of  jaundice.     Nam.e  causes. 

Icterus  or  jaundice  is  characterized  by  a  yellow  discoloration  of 
the  visible  mucous  membranes  and  skin,  and  the  presence  of  bile  pig- 
ment in  the  urine ;  fsBces  are  pale  and  dry  and  the  patient  shows  dul- 
ness  and  loss  of  appetite. 

Causes  are  numerous,  viz.,  catarrh  of  duodenum  and  bile  duct, 
gall-stones,  compression  of  bile  duct  by  tumors  and  overloaded 
stomach;  acute  and  chronic  hepatitis,  rupture  of  gall-bladder  (no 
gall-bladder  in  the  horse),  poisons,  parasites,  icterus  neonatorum, 
severe  infectious  diseases,  etc. 

State  the  relative  gravity  of  jaundice  in  the  horse  and  in  the  dog. 

Generally  ends  in  recovery  in  the  horse.  In  the  dog,  it  is  more 
serious  and  usually  ends  in  death. 

Give  the  causes  and  symptoms  of  acute  gastric  indigestion. 

Overloading,  spoiled  foods,  fermentiscible  foods,  ice-water,  espe- 
cially after  feeding,  previous  disease,  overwork,  defective  teeth  and 
parasites. 

Symptoms:  Violent  colic,  bloating  of  abdomen  and  under  the 
ribs  on  the  left  side ;  suppression  of  peristalsis  and  passage  of  f £eces ; 
attempts  to  eructate  and  vomit ;  hurried  breathing. 

In  acute  tympanitic  gastric  indigestion,  what  is  the  usual  reaction 
of  the  contents  of  the  viscus  ?     What  measures,  mechanical, 
chemical  and  medicinal,  would  be  especially  indicated? 
Reaction  acid. 

Treatment:  Pass  stomach  tube;  lavage;  puncture  the  stomach 
with  a  trocar  passed  through  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  intercostal 
space  on  the  left  side ;  give  6  or  8  ounces  of  sodium  hyposulphite 
in  solution.  Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  turpentine,  carbolic  acid 
13 


194  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

and  other  antiferments  may  be  useful.    After  the  acute  symptoms 
subside,  give  a  full  dose  of  aloes. 

Give   the   diagnostic   symptoms   of    (a)    crapulous   colic,    (b)    purely 
nervous  colic.    Give  treatment  of  each. 

(a)  Crapulous  or  engorgement  colic  is  manifested  by  an  over- 
distended  abdomen,  dull  percussion  sound,  continuous  dull  pain 
and  a  "saw-horse"  attitude.  Rectal  examination  reveals  the  solid 
ingesta. 

(b)  Purely  nervous  or  spasmodic  colic  is  diagnosed  by  the  remit- 
tent pain,  intervals  of  ease ;  uneasiness,  kicking  of  abdomen,  getting 
up  and  down,  increased  peristalsis ;  more  or  less  fteces  passed. 

Treatment:  In  crapulous  form,  give  an  aloes  ball  or  one  quart 
of  linseed  oil  or  both.  Quick-acting  cathartics,  such  as  areeoline  in 
one-fourth  grain  doses,  repeated  every  twenty  minutes.  Quiet  the 
pain  with  chloral  hydrate.  Spasmodic  colic  should  be  treated  with 
antispasmodics,  such  as  chloral  hydrate  and  cannabis  indica.  Empty 
the  bowels  with  an  aloes  ball,  salts  or  oil. 

State  the  cause  of  diarrhoea  in  the  new-born  and  prescribe  preventive 
treatment. 
See  "white  scours,"  page  294.  This  disease  may  be  simple  or 
contagious.  Among  the  many  causes  are  improper  food,  bacteria, 
navel  infection,  unclean  feeding  utensils,  cold  and  weakness.  Pre- 
vention: Dietary  measures;  scald  feeding  utensils;  intestinal  anti- 
septics, such  as,  bismuth  subnitrate,  phenol,  etc.  Sanitary  measures 
as  prescribed  under  "white  scours." 

What  is  intussusception?     Give  symptoms,  prognosis  and  treatment. 

Invagination  or  telescoping  of  one  portion  of  intestine  into 
another. 

Symptoms :  Obstruction,  vomiting,  no  fasces  passed ;  continuous 
colicky  pains ;  later,  fever  appears,  weak  pulse,  sweating  and  death. 
Tubular  sections  of  intestines  may  be  passed.  Obstruction  may  be 
felt  in  the  dog. 

Prognosis:  Usually  fatal. 

Treatment:  Laparotomy  and  replacement  of  intestine  is  the 
only  available  measure.    Linseed  oil  and  antispasmodics  may  relieve. 

What   genera    (equine,   bovine,   porcine,   canine)    are   most  liable   to 
intestinal  invagination?     Why? 
More  common  in  bovine;  less  common  in  canines  and  very  rare 
in  the  equine  and  porcine. 

The  spiral  arrangement  of  the  intestines  and  the  looser  disposi- 
tion of  the  mesentery  may  account  for  the  more  frequent  appear- 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  195 

ance  of  this  condition  in  bovines.  In  the  equine,  the  voluminous 
eajcum  may  receive  the  ileum  and  the  spacious  colon,  the  caecum. 
The  intestines  of  the  dog  and  hog  are  comparatively  simple. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  treatment  for  lead  poisoning  in  cattle. 

Emaciation,  shortness  of  breath,  paralysis  of  extremities,  blue 
line  on  the  gums  and  abortion  are  seen  in  the  chronic  form.  The 
acute  form  shows  blindness,  stupor,  coma,  convulsions  or  delirious 
excitement,  torpor  of  bowels,  gastro-enteritis,  vomiting,  salivation, 
suppression  of  milk  and  urine  and  muscular  cramps. 

Treatment:  Sulphate  of  magnesia  or  other  forms  of  sulphates 
which  form  insoluble  sulphates  of  lead.  Chronic  form :  give  potas- 
sium iodide  and  tonics. 

Mention  tv^^o  intestinal  parasites  of  the  horse.     Write  a  prescription 
for  worms  in  the  horse. 
Ascaris  megaloeephala  and  oxyuris  curvula. 

Antimonii  et  Potassii  tartras    Siij 

Div.  pulv.  No.  iv. 

Sig. — Give   one   powder   in   drinking  water   every   six 
hours  and  follow  with 

Sodii  sulphatis    §xvj 

Sig. — Dissolve  in  water  and  give  as  a  drench. 

State  the  factors  that  produce  gall-stones.  Give  prophylactic  and 
therapeutic  treatment. 

Precipitation  of  biliary  solids,  bacterial  infection,  concentration 
of  the  bile  due  to  idleness,  and  dry  feeding;  presence  of  colloid 
material  as  mucus,  pus,  blood  and  epithelial  cells  due  to  inflam- 
mation. 

Prophylaxis :  Avoid  dry  feeds ;  give  plenty  of  water  and  exercise 
and  keep  bowels  active. 

Treatment:  Give  narcotics  to  lessen  pain;  cathartics  such  as 
calomel  or  olive  oil ;  salicylate  of  soda  or  salicylic  acid  as  an  intes- 
tinal antiseptic.    Operative  removal  of  stones. 

What  tapeworms  infest  solipeds  and  what  is  known  of  their  larval 
forms  ? 
Taenia  perfoliata,  tcenia  mamillana  and  taenia  plicata.    Nothing 
known  of  their  larval  forms. 

What  symptoms  indicate  ascaridae  and  what  sclerostomata  in  the 
bowels  of  the  horse?     How  does  the  prognosis  differ  in  the 
two  cases? 
Ascaridae  =  slight,  recurrent  colics,  ravenous  appetite,  unthrifti- 


196  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

ness,  gastro-intestinal  catarrh,  passing  of  worms  6  to  12  inches 
long. 

Sclerostomata  =  violent  colic,  frequent  defecation,  f ollo^yed  by 
arrest,  eyes  sunken,  cold  sweating,  paralysis  of  bowels,  death. 
These  symptoms  are  not  due  to  the  presence  of  the  worm  in  the 
bowel  but  to  its  embryonic  form  which  lodges  in  the  anterior  mesen- 
teric artery,  causing  a  thrombus  and  emboli  to  form.  The  latter  being 
carried  to  the  peripheral  arteries  of  the  intestinal  walls  produce 
the  fatal  results.  Otherwise,  the  mere  presence  of  the  mature  worm 
in  the  bowels,  unless  in  large  numbers,  may  pass  unnoticed.  If 
abundant  the  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  of  ascariasis  and,  in 
addition,  marked  anaemia  and  emaciation. 

Prognosis:  Good  in  ascariasis;  very  bad  in  case  of  obstruction 
of  the  mesenteric  arteries  by  sclerostomata  {" thromho-embolic 
colic"). 

How   may   the   following   be   distinguished:     sclerostoma   equinum, 
sclerostoma   tetracanthum,    oxyuris   curvula   and    oxyuris 
mastigodes?     State  the  relative  gravity  of  infestation  by 
each,  giving  reasons. 
The  sclerostoma  equinum  is  larger  than  the  sclerostoma  tetra- 
canthum, and  its  head  terminates  bluntly,  whereas  the  sclerostoma 
tetracanthum  has  a  tapering  anterior  extremity.     Oxyuris  curvula 
and  oxyuris  mastigodes  are  nearly  identical  except  that  the  female 
of  the  latter  is  3  to  4  inches  long  and  of  the  former  only  1  to  1^4 
inches. 

Sclerostoma  tetracanthum  is  comparatively  harmless;  it  sucks 
blood  and  may  injure  the  mucous  membrane,  producing 
unthriftiness. 

Sclerostoma  equinum  is  very  harmful ;  its  embryonic  form  enters 
the  circulation  and  produces  thrombo-embolic  colic  which  ends  in 
death. 

The  oxyurida3  lodge  in  the  rectum  and  cause  uneasiness  and 
unthriftiness. 

What  conditions  favor  the  propagation  of  strongylus  (sclerostoma) 
equinum  and  tetracanthum  and  what  measures  will  pre- 
vent their  production? 
Fecal  contamination  of  water  and  feed  favors  the  development 
of  these  worms.    As  preventive  measures,  clear  the  intestinal  tract 
of  the  worms  and  destroy  the  fceces  containing  the  parasites  and 
eggs  of  same.    Prevent  contamination  of  water  with  faeces. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  197 

What  domestic  animals  are  liable  to  be  attacked  by  the  hookworm 

(uncinaria,   anchylostoma)  ?     How  do   such  worms  enter 

the  body  and  what  symptoms  do  they  produce?      Give 

treatment. 

Ox,  sheep,  cat  and  more  commonly  the  dog.     The  worms  enter 

the  intestinal  tract  through  the  drinking  water  which  contains  the 

larva?. 

Symptoms:  Digestive  derangements,  dulness  and  indifference-, 
whining,  tympanites,  diarrhoea,  loss  of  appetite,  nervous  disorders, 
nausea,  anaemia  and  emaciation. 

Treatment:  Thymol,  2  to  15  grain  doses.  Separate  the  sick 
from  the  well  to  prevent  reinfection.  Thoroughly  clean  and  disin- 
fect kennels.    Supply  pure  drinking  water. 

What  are  coccidia?  Name  the  domestic  animals  infested  by  coccidia, 
mentioning  in  each  case  the  organs  infested.  Give  diag- 
nosis, prevention  and  treatment  in  each  case. 

Coccidia  are  a  genera  of  sporozoa,  single-celled  microorganisms 
provided  with  a  protoplasmic-celled  body  in  which  is  found  a 
nucleus. 

Cattle,  sheep,  rabbits,  fowls  and,  occasionally,  dogs  and  pigs 
are  infested.  The  intestines  are  more  commonly  affected  in  cattle, 
sheep  and  fowls,  whereas  the  liver  is  usually  the  seat  of  disease  in 
rabbits,  dogs  and  pigs.  Both  organs  may  be  affected  in  all  animals. 
There  are  a  few  cases  of  diseases  of  the  air  passages  reported  in 
cattle,  dogs  and  rabbits,  due  to  coccidia. 

Diagnosis :  Fetid,  hemorrhagic  diarrhoea,  fever,  loss  of  appetite, 
weakness,  death,  jaundice,  when  liver  is  affected;  coccidia  may  be 
found  in  the  faeces  by  microscopic  examination. 

Prevention :  Provide  pure  water ;  disinfect  faeces  with  3  per  cent, 
watery  solution  of  sulphuric  acid ;  destroy  carcasses  and  thoroughly 
disinfect. 

Treatment :  Remove  from  pastures ;  give  dry  foods  and  intestinal 
astringents  and  antiseptics.    Useless  to  treat  the  hepatic  form. 

Describe  all  the  symptoms  produced  by  constipation  in  the  dog. 

Small,  hard,  glazed  stools,  straining,  no  stools  passed;  hot,  ten- 
der, swollen,  bulging  anus;  colicky  pains,  tenderness  of  abdomen, 
vomiting,  fever,  icterus,  etc. 

What  are  the  symptoms  of  intestinal  parasites  in  the  dog  other  than 
the  passage  of  worms  by  the  mouth  or  rectum? 
Diarrhoea,  vomiting,  emaciation,  nervousness,  convulsions,  anae- 
mia, pot-bellied,  easily  fatigued,  whining. 


198  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  symptoms  of  acute  parenchymatous  hepatitis  in  the  dog 
and  give  treatment. 
Tenderness  to  pressure  over  the  liver,  pain  during  defecation, 
jaundice,  fever,  constipation  and  vomiting. 

As  treatment,  give  mild  laxatives  such  as  olive  or  castor  oil. 
Calomel  is  very  good.  Intestinal  antiseptics  such  as  salol,  sulpho- 
carbolates,  etc.,  are  useful.    Restrict  the  diet,  avoiding  fats. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  peritonitis. 

Causes:  Infection,  traumatic  injuries,  operative  wounds  in  the 
abdomen,  castration,  laparotomy,  perforating  ulcer  of  the  intes- 
tines, rupture  of  the  stomach  or  intestine,  perforation  of  a  parturient 
womb,  rupture  of  abscesses  in  the  peritoneal  cavity,  metastasis. 

Symptoms:  Presence  of  a  wound  with  spreading  swelling, 
cedema  and  tenderness  of  the  abdomen,  tucked  up  abdomen,  high 
fever,  quick,  wiry  pulse,  careful  decubitus  and  rising,  short,  catchy 
respiratory  movements,  straddling  gait,  short  steps,  constipation, 
effusion  may  cause  fluctuation  and  enlargement  of  the  abdomen. 

Treatment:  Local  antiseptics,  drainage  of  wounds,  irrigation 
of  the  peritoneal  cavity  with  sterile  water;  saline  laxatives,  intes- 
tinal antiseptics ;  stimulants ;  apply  mustard  over  abdomen. 

What  is  ascites?     Give  causes  of  ascites. 

Ascites  is  an  accumulation  of  a  serous  fluid  in  the  peritoneal 
cavity.  It  is  caused  by  chronic  peritonitis,  venous  stasis  due  to 
obstruction  of  the  portal  vein  by  tumors,  indurative  hepatitis,  etc. 
Valvular  disease  of  the  heart,  kidney  diseases,  hydra^mia,  tubercu- 
losis and  heaves  are  also  etiological  factors. 

Mention  the  different  forms  of  ergotism  in  cattle.     Give  the  symptoms 
of  each  form  mentioned. 
Acute :  Gastro-enteritis,  ptyalism,  vomiting,  colicky  pams,  diar- 
rhoea, ulcerous  stomatitis,  labor  pains,  abortion,  prolapsus  uteri, 
insensibility  to  pain,  paralyses,  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  muscular 
cramps. 

Chronic:  Necrosis  of  extremities  such  as  the  ears,  tail,  teats, 
claws  and  lower  leg;  abortion  and  sterility. 

Give  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  distomiasis   (liver  rot)  in 
sheep. 
Caused  by  the  presence  of  the  liver-fluke  parasite,   distoma 
hepaticum,  in  the  bile  ducts. 

Symptoms :  During  the  period  of  invasion  of  tlie  parasite,  lasting 
2  to  3  months,  the  sheep  gain  in  flesh ;  later,  dropsy,  emaciation,  diar- 
rhoea alternating  with  constipation;  variable  temperature,  icterus, 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  199 

presence  of  the  ova  in  the  fasces,  usually  terminates  in  death.    Some 
recover  to  be  reinfected  the  following  year  and  then  succumb. 

Treatment:  Prevention;  drain  soils,  avoid  low,  damp,  infected 
pastures,  give  common  salt  in  feed,  feed  well  and  fortify  the  system ; 
tonics,  vermifuges.     Treatment  is  unsatisfactory. 

State  the  effects  of  overfeeding  cattle  and  swine  with  cotton-seed  meal. 
J\Iay  produce  garget  and  mammitis  in  cattle.  Will  destroy  the  life 
of  swine  with  symptoms  of  scurvy  and  grave  constitutional  disorders. 
In  both  animals,  it  may  produce  diarrhoea,  lachrymation,  abscess  for- 
mation, ulceration  of  the  cornea,  staphyloma,  fever,  oedema  of  the 
legs,  congestion  of  the  liver  and  spleen,  and  high-colored  urine. 

Diseases  op  the  Nervous  System        , 

What  is  loco  poisoning?  Where  and  when  is  it  enzootic  and  how  can 
it  be  prevented  ? 
Loco  poisoning  is  a  disease  of  animals,  manifested  by  cerebral 
disturbances,  caused  by  eating  a  certain  variety  of  leguminous 
plants.  After  once  eating  these  plants,  a  desire  for  more  becomes 
a  veritable  craze  or  neurosis  and  the  patient  becomee  unmanageable, 
vicious  and  loses  flesh. 

It  is  enzootic  in  the  summer  and  fall  of  the  year  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  states  and  Pacific  coast  region.  To  prevent  the  disease, 
do  not  pasture  animals  on  fields  where  the  plant  is  present,  nor 
feed  hay  and  grasses  from  such  fields. 

Describe  immobility.  Give  its  causes,  symptoms,  diagnosis  and  treat- 
ment. 

Immobility,  chronic  hydrocephalus,  is  a  chronic  disease  of  the 
brain. 

Causes:  Heredity,  congestion  of  the  brain,  traumas,  venous 
obstruction,  tumors,  insolation,  hepatic,  gastric  and  pulmonary 
disorders. 

Symptoms:  Stupid  expression,  sluggish  movements,  dulled  re- 
flexes, slow  mastication,  failure  to  respond  to  commands,  standing 
wdth  legs  crossed  or  in  other  abnormal  positions  for  long  periods  of 
time,  incoordinate  movements. 

Diagnosis:  Easy  in  well-marked  cases.  The  above  symptoms, 
together  with  a  normal  temperature,  are  almost  conclusive. 

Treatment:  Derivatives,  nux  vomica,  purgatives,  potassium 
iodide  and  other  drugs  may  relieve,  but  the  disease  is  incurable. 

Describe  abdominal  vertigo.     Give  causes,  symptoms,  prevention  and 
treatment. 
Abdominal  vertigo,  stomach  staggers,  is  a  complication  of  gastric 


200  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

and  hepatic  disorder  associated  with  giddiness  and  unsteady  move- 
ments, caused  by  overloading  the  stomach,  worms  and  gastro- 
intestinal catarrh. 

Symptoms:  Gastric  irritation,  colicky  pains,  eructation  of  gas, 
delirium  followed  by  a  comatose  condition. 

Prevention :  Reduce  rations  and  exercise  regularly. 

Treatment :  Give  intestinal  evacuants ;  venesection  or  derivatives 
such  as  arecoline  and  pilocarpine;  laxative  diet;  chloral  hydrate 
during  the  violence  of  the  attack. 

Give  the  symptoms  of  inflammation  of  the  meninges  of  the  brain. 

Phrenitis,  encephalitis,  pachymeningitis  or  inflammation  of  the 
brain  proper  and  leptomeningitis,  inflammation  of  the  coverings 
of  the  brain  usually  coexist  and  are  indistinguishable,  symptomati- 
eally ;  they  are  shown  by  hypersesthesia,  delirium,  pawing,  plunging, 
and  violent  convulsions,  followed  by  dulness,  stupor,  somnolence, 
muscular  weakness,  angesthesia,  paralysis  and  coma. 

Give  the  causes  and  symptoms  of  gid  in  sheep. 

Caused  by  the  presence  of  the  cystic  form  of  the  tcenia  ccenurus 
{ccenurus  cerehralis)  in  the  brain. 

Symptoms:  Timidity,  nervousness,  dulness,  dilated  pupils, 
drooping  lids,  circular  movements,  pivoting  on  one  foot,  plunging 
ahead,  hemiplegia  and  paraplegia. 

Give  causes,  s5miptoms  and  treatment  of  chorea  in  the  dog. 

Causes:  Weakness,  previous  disease,  mierobian  toxic  matters 
in  the  blood,  hence  it  usually  follows  distemper. 

Symptoms:  Local  twitching  of  one  or  both  fore  limbs,  neck, 
head,  maxilla,  eyelids,  hind  limbs,  or  the  whole  body  may  partici- 
pate; movements  are  rhythmical,  are  less  active  when  recumbent, 
and  may  or  may  not  be  absent  during  sleep. 

Treatment:  Hygienic  measures,  fresh  air  and  sunshine,  nerve 
tonics,  such  as  arsenic  and  strychnine ;  nerve  sedatives  may  be  indi- 
cated if  too  restless,  such  as  belladonna,  chloral  hydrate,  bromides 
and  morphine.    Usually  incurable. 

What  symptoms  would  tend  to  distinguish  cerebral  anaemia  from  cere- 
bral hyperaemia? 

Cerebral  Anwmia.  Cerebral  Hyperccmia. 

Loss  of  consciousness.  Cerebral  excitement. 

Stumbling.  Delirium. 

Vomiting  in  dogs.  Mucous  membranes  injected. 

Paleness  of  mucous  membranes.  Respiratory    movements    accelerated. 
Respiratory  movements   shallow  and 
slow. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  201 

Give  the  symptoms  of  cerebrospinal  meningitis. 

Often  occurs  enzootically.  First  stages:  Sudden  attack,  fever, 
hypersensitiveness,  delirium.  Later,  paralysis  of  various  parts,  as 
the  pharynx,  shown  by  inability  to  swallow,  loss  of  appetite,  unequal 
dilatation  of  pupils,  loss  of  reflexes,  decubitus,  spasms  of  various 
groups  of  muscles,  opisthotonus.  The  symptoms  vary  in  different 
individuals  and  no  two  appear  exactly  the  same. 

Describe  a  case  of  sunstroke  and  give  treatment. 

Insolation  or  sunstroke  comes  on  suddenly ;  shown  by  cessation 
of  perspiration,  dyspnoea,  staggering  and  falling  down,  weak  pulse, 
high  temperature  (104''-110°  F,),  cerebral  excitement  and  loss  of 
reflexes. 

Treatment :  Eemove  to  a  cool  place ;  apply  ice-bags  on  the  head 
and  give  cold  water  enemas ;  quiet  with  chloral  hydrate ;  give  heart 
stimulants  such  as  ammonium  carbonate,  camphor,  digitalis,  etc. 

Diseases  op  the  Organs  op  Locomotion 

Mention  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  articular  rheumatism. 

Causes:  Infection,  retained  after-birth,  cold  and  dampness. 
Often  seen  in  connection  with  endocarditis. 

Symptoms :  Shifting  lameness ;  heat,  swelling  and  tenderness  of 
one  or  more  joints;  decubitus,  joints  semiflexed,  fever,  loss  of 
appetite. 

Treatment:  Antirheumatics  such  as  salicylic  acid  or  salicylate 
of  soda  in  three-drachm  doses  every  six  hours;  aspirin,  antipyrin 
and  salol  are  also  useful.  Locally,  apply  linimentum  saponis,  arti- 
ficial oil  of  wintergreen,  and  heat.    Slaughter  meat  animals. 

Give  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  muscular  rheumatism. 

Causes:  Infection,  cold,  dampness,  predisposition.  Usually 
occurs  in  well-fed  and  nourished  animals. 

Symptoms:  Shifting,  recurrent  lameness;  muscular  soreness; 
symptoms  vary,  depending  upon  the  muscles  involved ;  thus  we  may 
observe  lameness  in  the  shoulder,  posterior  limbs  or  neck,  difficult 
mastication,  breathing,  etc.  Fever  is  usually  absent,  although  there 
may  be  a  slight  rise  in  severe  cases.  Appetite  remains  good.  Dogs 
cry  out  when  handled. 

Treatment:  Provide  warm,  dry  quarters,  warm  blankets  and 
administer  antirheumatics,  such  as  salicylates,  quinine,  salol,  etc. 
Give  a  laxative  diet  and  occasional  doses  of  saline  cathartics.  A 
Turkish  bath  may  benefit  dogs. 


202  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

What  domestic  animals  suffer  most  from  trichinosis?  Give  usual 
channels  of  infection,  diagnosis  and  prevention. 

This  disease  occurs  most  coirLmonly  in  swine,  rarely  in  dogs  and 
cats.  The  infection  enters  tlirough  the  digestive  tract  by  eating 
meat  containing  the  parasite,  trichina  spiralis. 

Diagnosis:  Rheumatoid  symptoms;  harpoon  muscle  and  obtain 
specimens  for  microscopical  examination ;  examine  the  f a?ces  for  the 
adult  worm.  Hogs  often  show  diarrhoea,  and  during  the  migration 
of  the  embryos  into  the  muscles,  rubbing,  scratching,  difficult  mas- 
tication, and  painful  breathing. 

Prevention:  Destroy  carcasses  of  trichinous  animals.  Destroy 
rats  and  mice  around  slaughter  houses  as  they  are  frequent  hosts 
of  the  parasite. 

Describe  a  case  of  spasm  of  the  muscles  of  the  hind  leg  and  its  treat- 
ment. 
Usually  seen  in  the  femoral  region,  due  to  a  nervous  affection  of 
the  anterior  crural  muscles.  Appears  suddenly  after  standing; 
leg  held  stiffly ;  appears  longer  than  its  fellow ;  knuckling  at  the  fet- 
lock, resting  on  the  toe ;  difficulty  in  moving  forward  or  backward, 
dragging  of  the  extremity ;  anterior  muscles  rigid 

Treatment:  Rub  stimulating  liniment  over  the  stifle;  rest  the 
patient  and  give  a  laxative  diet. 

Diseases  of  the  Skin 

Give  the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  acne. 

Acne  is  an  inflammatory  disease  of  the  sebaceous  glands,  charac- 
terized by  tenderness  of  the  skin,  swellings  the  size  of  a  pea,  vesicles, 
pustules,  exudation,  loss  of  hair,  scars  and  sometimes  enlargement 
of  the  submaxillary  lymph-glands;  absence  of  fever.  Treatment 
consists  of  the  application  of  astringent  and  antiseptic  washes,  such 
as  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  aluminum  acetate  or  acetate  of  lead. 

Describe  the  symptoms  and  give  the  treatment  of  favus  (ringworm). 

Characterized  by  the  presence  of  numerous  red  spots  in  the 
skin,  which  gradually  enlarge  and  become  covered  with  a  thin,  gray- 
ish scale  under  which  is  serum;  the  hair  breaks  off,  the  circiunfer- 
ence  of  the  diseased  area  becomes  reddened,  the  centre,  gray-colored 
and  cupped  shape;  there  is  great  itching  jDresent  and  the  disease 
tends  to  spread  over  various  parts  of  the  body. 

Treatment:  Scrape  or  curette  deeply;  paint  with  tincture  of 
iodine  or  use  mercurial  ointments. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  203 

Give  the  symptoms,  course  and  treatment  of  gangrenous  dermatitis. 

This  disease  is  generally  preceded  by  swelling,  redness  and 
sensitiveness.  Then  follows  discoloration,  insensitiveness,  putrid 
odor ;  a  dry  or  moist  portion  of  the  skin  is  cast  off,  revealing  a  raw, 
ulcerative  surface. 

Course :  Progressive,  unless  properly  attended  to.  May  extend 
deep  into  the  tendons  and  ligaments  or  produce  fatal  septicgemia. 

Treatment:  Remove  dead  parts;  apply  dry  dressings  of  iodo- 
form, boric  acid  or  lead  preparations. 

Give  the  cause,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  urticaria. 

Urticaria  is  an  inflammatory  affection  of  the  skin,  characterized 
by  a  sudden  development  of  a  serous  infiltration  of  the  papillary 
bodies  and  of  the  malpighian  layer  of  the  skin.  It  often  disappears 
completely  after  a  short  time. 

Causes:  Digestive  derangements,  plethora,  rich  grain  feeding, 
hot  weather,  intestinal  poisons,  bites  of  insects,  individual  idiosyn- 
crasy, poisonous  plants  as  poison  ivy,  etc. 

Symptoms:  Sudden  eruption;  in  a  few  hours  a  healthy  skin 
becomes  covered  with  a  uniform  eruption  of  nodules,  or  blotches, 
some  of  which  may  coalesce  and  form  large  areas.  Itching  may  or 
may  not  be  present;  individual  nodules  subside  to  be  followed  by 
others. 

Treatment:  Saline  cathartics,  aloes,  alkaline  diuretics;  allay 
itching  by  bathing  with  solutions  of  sodium  bicarbonate,  phenol  or 
menthol. 

Name  the  different  forms  of  parasitic  skin  disease,  mentioning  the 
parasite  for  each  form  named. 
Sarcoptic  mange,  due  to  sarcoptes  scabei. 
Psoroptic  mange,  due  to  psoroptes  communis. 
Symbiotic  mange,  due  to  symbiotes  communis. 
Demodectic  mange,  due  to  demodex  f  olliculorum. 
Ringworm,  due  to  trycophyton  tonsurans. 
Ox  warble,  due  to  larva  of  hypoderma  lineata. 
Cutaneous  coccidiosis,  due  to  coccidia  oviforme. 
Fleas,  lice  and  ticks  occasionally  burrow  under  the  skin  and 
produce  irritation. 

What  parasites  are  known  to  produce  cutaneous  epizootics? 

All  those  mentioned  above  but  more  especially  the  sarcoptidse  and 
demodecidge. 

Give  the  cause  of  poultry  acariasis  in  the  horse.     Give  treatment. 

Housing  chickens,  infested  with  the  chicken  mite  (dermanyssus 
gallinae),  in  or  near  the  stable.    The  mites  become  temporary  para- 


204  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

sites  of  the  horse,  causing  pruritus,  scratching,  rubbing  and  a  rough 

coat. 

Treatment:  "Wash  with  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  creolin,  or  dis- 
solve four  ounces  of  staphisagria  in  one  gallon  of  boiling  water  and 
use  as  a  wash  when  cool.  Clean  the  stable  thoroughly  and  use  a 
whitewash  containing  carbolic  acid. 

What  are  the  causes,  dietetic,  climatic,  chemical  and  traumatic,  of 
erythema?     Give  prevention  and  treatment  of  each  form 
of  erythema. 
Primary  erythema  is  due  to  external  irritants,  blows,  bites,  scald- 
ing, burning,  sun's  rays,  vesicants  such  as  mustard,  cantharides, 
acids,  lye,  insect  stings,  etc. 

Secondary  erythema  is  due  to  infectious  diseases,  as  swine  plague 
and  hog  cholera,  dog  distemper,  foot  and  mouth  disease ;  also  follows 
the  ingestion  of  certain  foods  as  buckwheat,  clover  and  distillers' 
grains. 

Prevention  depends  upon  the  avoidance  of  the  above  enumerated 
causes.  Treatment :  Cold,  astringent  applications  such  as  Burrow 's 
lotion,  Goulard's  extract,  etc.    Give  a  laxative  diet. 

Mention  one  of  the  parasites  that  causes  mange  in  the  dog. 

Demodex  folliculorum  causes  demodectic  or  follicular  mange, 
which  is  practically  incurable. 

What  animals  and  what  regions  of  the  body  harbor  demodex  follicu- 
lorum?    Give  symptoms  and  treatment. 

The  dog  and  pig.  The  breast,  legs,  axillary  and  facial  regions 
are  usually  first  affected,  later  the  entire  surface  of  the  body  and 
legs  may  be  involved. 

Symptoms:  The  skin  becomes  red  and  thickened;  loss  of  the 
hair ;  extreme  pruritus ;  pustules  give  the  skin  a  papillated  appear- 
ance. 

Treatment :  Unsuccessful ;  a  mixture  of  gasoline,  oil  of  tar  and 
oil  of  cade  has  given  more  or  less  satisfaction;  sulphur  and  lye  is 
used  by  some,  but  the  great  majority  of  cases  show  no  improvement 
and  gradually  grow  worse,  become  emaciated  and  die.  Some  few 
improve  and  seem  to  be  cured,  only  to  have  the  disease  break  out 
anew. 

Mention  the  parasites  causing  scabies  in  sheep.     State  the  habits  of 
these  parasites. 
Sarcoptes  scabei,  rare. 
Psoroptes  communis,  common  scab  parasite  of  sheep. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  205 

The  psoroptes  live  on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  eat  wool,  irritate 
and  cause  the  animal  to  bite  and  pull  out  the  wool. 

The  sarcoptes  burrow  under  the  skin  and  produce  itching  and 
scabs. 

Give  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  acariasis. 

Quarantine  regulations;  separation  of  well  from  affected;  thor- 
ough disinfection ;  dipping  and  isolation  of  newly-purchased  animals 
until  known  to  be  free  from  scabies. 

Treatment:  Lime  and  sulphur  dips,  and  a  tobacco  and  sulphur 
dip  are  recommended  by  the  B.  A.  I.,  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Coal- 
tar  products  such  as  creolin,  creosote,  etc.,  have  given  good  results. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  the  disease  commonly 
termed  "  hunger  mange." 

This  is  another  name  for  chronic  squamous  eczema. 

Causes:  Insufficient  nourishment,  faulty  skin  hygiene,  tender 
skin,  nervous  temperament,  chronic  wasting  diseases,  may  follow 
acute  eczema.  Long  administration  of  iodides  is  sometimes  followed 
by  this  condition. 

Symptoms:  Poor  condition,  dry  lustreless  hair  which  contains 
bran-like  scales  of  epidermis ;  falling  out  of  the  hair ;  itching ;  skin 
becomes  thickened  and  occasionally  papules  and  vesicles  are  seen. 

Treatment :  Correct  the  internal  disorders ;  give  tonics,  arsenic ; 
careful  grooming,  and  bathing  with  non-irritating  soap.  Feed  gener- 
ously with  nourishing  foods. 


SURGERY* 

"Wounds 

Define  wounds.     Give  a  classification  of  wounds. 

A  wound  is  any  injury  accompanied  by  a  breach  in  the  continuity 
of  an  internal  or  external  surface. 

According  to  cause,  wounds  are  classified  as  follows:  incised, 
lacerated,  punctured,  contused,  stab,  gun-shot,  bites  and  caustic. 

What  is  wound  infection?     Give  treatment  of  wound  infection. 

The  presence  of  microorganisms  or  their  toxic  products  in  a 
wound.  Treatment :  Drain,  irrigate,  disinfect  thoroughly,  and  cover 
with  aseptic  gauze  and  bandage.  Repeat  dressing  daily.  If  im- 
practicable to  bandage,  apply  a  protective  covering  of  dusting 
powder. 

State  the  general  principles  of  antiseptic  wound  treatment. 

Remove  foreign  bodies  and  necrotic  tissue,  cleanse  wound  thor- 
oughly and  use  a  non-irritating  antiseptic  agent.  Cover  the  wound 
with  antiseptic  gauze  and  bandage.  In  case  of  operative  wounds, 
the  site  of  operation  is  shaved,  washed  and  bathed  with  an  anti- 
septic agent;  if  possible  an  antiseptic  pack  should  be  applied  for 
24  hours  prior  to  operating.  The  operator's  hands,  nails  and  arms 
should  be  scrupulously  cleansed  with  soap,  water  and  a  stiff  brush, 
then  with  alcohol  or  ether  to  dissolve  all  oily  secretions,  and,  finally, 
immersed  for  ten  minutes  or  longer  in  the  antiseptic  agent.  The 
instruments,  suture  material,  dressings,  etc.,  are  disinfected  by  being 
placed  in  the  antiseptic  solution  for  10  minutes  before  using.  They 
should  be  handled  only  by  the  operator's  disinfected  hands.  After 
operation  and  at  subsequent  visits,  dressings  are  carried  out  as 
directed  above. 

State  the  distinction  between  antiseptic  and  aseptic  wound  treatment. 

In  antiseptic  wound  treatment,  as  described  above,  tliere  are 
many  channels  of  infection  overlooked,  as  from  the  air,  breath  of 
operator,  etc. ;  furthermore,  most  antiseptic  solutions,  if  efficient 
germicides  are  irritating  to  the  tissues  and  retard  healing. 

Aseptic  wound  treatment  may  be  defined  as  the  precaution  to 
prevent  infection  of  the  surgical  wound,  while  antiseptic  surgery 
refers  to  the  method  by  which  the  former  is  accomi)lished  and  to 


*  Unless  otherwise  stated  all  questions  relate  to  the  horse. 
206 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  207 

the  treatment  of  unavoidable  infections.  So,  antiseptic  wound 
treatment  is  giving  way  to  the  aseptic  method.  This  latter,  as  its 
name  implies,  aims  toward  the  absolute  freedom  from  septic  mate- 
rial. This  is  accomplished  by  sterilizing  all  instruments,  dressings, 
bandages,  etc.,  with  steam,  hot  air,  or  boiling  in  a  one  or  two  per  cent, 
soda  solution.  The  wound  is  cleansed  with  sterile  water  or  steril- 
ized physiological  salt  solution,  but  no  antiseptic  solution,  and 
covered  with  the  sterilized  dressing.  The  operator's  hands  are 
cleansed  as  in  the  antiseptic  method  but  are  rinsed  in  sterile  water 
to  remove  all  traces  of  the  antiseptic.  Some  operators  use  sterilized 
rubber  gloves.  The  operating  table,  operating  field,  operator's 
clothes,  assistants,  all  utensils  and  the  air  of  the  room  must  be 
rendered  aseptic.  This  method  is  impracticable  in  veterinary  sur- 
gery for  obvious  reasons.  The  antiseptic  method  with  aseptic  pre- 
cautions is  preferred. 

Mention  and  describe  the  different  methods  of  wound  healing. 

1.  Healing  hy  first  intentio7i  consists  of  a  direct  union  of  the 
margins  of  the  wound  through  immediate  agglutination  and  without 
suppuration. 

2.  Healing  by  second  intention  is  characterized  by  suppuration 
and  granulation. 

3.  Healing  hy  third  intention  consists  in  the  artificial  union  of 
wound  surfaces  that  are  already  granulating  and  suppurative.  It 
is  effected  by  disinfecting  and  suturing  the  suppurative  granulations. 

4.  Healing  under  an  eschar  is  a  form  of  primary  wound  healing. 
The  protective  coat  may  be  dried  blood  or  a  scab  produced  by  actual 
cautery,  chemical  caustics,  dusting  powders,  etc, 

5.  Healing  by  abnormal  granulation  and  cicatrization  takes 
place  when  great  loss  of  substance  occurs,  when  foreign  bodies  or 
necrosed  pieces  of  tissue  remain  in  the  wound,  or  when  continued 
infection  or  irritation  occurs  in  fresh  or  healing  wounds. 

State  the  indications  for  the  use  of  the  continuous  suture. 

In  non-infected  wounds  where  healing  by  first  intention  is  antici- 
pated ;  in  visceral  wounds  where  perfect  closure  is  imperative ;  and 
in  cases  where  temporary  retention  of  dressings  in  the  traumatic 
cavity  is  desired. 

Mention  the  indications  for  the  reopening  of  wounds. 

When  infection  occurs  in  the  deeper  part  of  a  wound  as  shown 
by  escape  of  discharges  or  swelling;  when  necrosed  tissue  or  other 
foreign  bodies  are  present  in  the  deeper  part  of  the  wound.  In 
wound  infection  diseases  as  septicaemia,  tetanus,  etc. 


208  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  different  methods  of  arresting  hemorrhage. 

1.  Ligation  of  the  bleeding  vessel  by  grasping  the  end  with  for- 
ceps and  tying  with  a  strong  thread.  The  vessel  may  be  ligated  at 
a  centripetal  point. 

2.  Compression  with  tampons  and  bandages,  or  by  an  elastic 
bandage  (Esmarch's  bandage)  applied  between  the  wound  and  the 
heart. 

3.  Torsion,  which  consists  of  twisting  the  bleeding  vessel  on  its 
axis. 

4.  Cauterization  of  the  bleeding  parts  forms  an  eschar  which 
acts  as  an  aseptic  bandage. 

5.  Cold  contracts  the  vessels  and  narrows  their  lumen. 

6.  Therapeutic  agents  as  alum,  sugar  of  lead,  tannin,  etc.,  applied 
externally,  by  their  astringent  action,  and  ergot,  adrenalin  chloride, 
etc.,  internally,  by  their  vasoconstrictor  action,  check  hemorrhage. 

Give  the  treatment  for  lacerated  wounds. 

Fresh  lacerated  wounds:  arrest  hemorrhage,  irrigate,  disinfect, 
provide  drainage,  suture  and  bandage.  If  extensive  and  healing  by 
first  intention  is  impracticable,  apply  drainage  tube  and  suture  as 
much  as  possible.  Remove  drainage  tube  as  soon  as  practicable  and 
secure  healing  by  granulation.  Old  lacerated  wounds  may  be  scari- 
fied, disinfected  and  sutured  (healing  by  third  intention),  and  if 
this  does  not  succeed,  daily  dressing  and  healing  should  be  followed 
by  granulation  and  cicatrization. 

Give  the  care  and  treatment  of  a  deep  lacerated  wound  of  the  coronet. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Avoid  excessive  pressure  in  bandaging  as  it  favors  necrosis  in 
the  region  of  the  coronet.  If  the  coronary  band  is  much  swollen,  the 
horn  should  be  rasped  away  over  an  area  corresponding  to  the 
swelling.  Horn  formation  should  be  discouraged  until  all  swelling 
disappears.  Keep  horn  soft  with  .5  per  cent,  caustic  potash  solution 
until  the  inflammatory  swelling  disappears.  Irregular  cicatrization 
should  be  similarly  treated.  If  abnormal  growths  of  horn  occur, 
they  should  be  rasped  down. 

Mention  the  domestic  animals  in  the  order  of  their  susceptibility  to 
suppuration. 
From  most  susceptible  to  the  least,  as  follows :  horse,  ox,  sheep, 
cat,  dog,  pig,  fowls. 
Give  the  method  of  arresting  hemorrhage  after  castration  in  the  colt. 

Cold  irrigation,  compression  with  tampons  or  ligation  may  be 
employed.    Generally,  the  preference  is  given  to  compression  with 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  209 

tampons,  which  are  held  in  place  by  heavy  tape  sutures  for  24  hours 
and  then  removed. 

Define  (a)  abscess,  (b)  cold  abscess.     Give  treatment  for  each. 

(a)  A  localized  collection  of  pus  in  a  cavity  formed  by  the  dis- 
integration of  tissues.  Treatment:  incision  and  antiseptic  irri- 
gation. 

(b)  An  abscess  of  slow  development,  with  little  evidence  of 
inflammation.  Often  have  a  thick,  fibrous,  connective-tissue  capsule. 
Treatment :  Extirpate  the  capsule,  irrigate  with  antiseptic  solution, 
suture  and  drain. 

Define  (a)  septicaemia,  (b)  pyaemia,  (c)  phlegmon. 

(a)  A  septic  intoxication  caused  by  the  presence  of  bacteria  and 
their  toxic  products  in  the  blood. 

(b)  A  general  wound  infection  disease  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  pyogenic  germs  in  the  blood  and  the  formation  of  sup- 
purative foci  of  disease  in  the  body.  (A  septicaemia  plus  metastatic 
abscess  formation.) 

(c)  An  infectious,  serous  or  suppurative  inflammation  of  the 
connective  tissue  and  all  its  parts,  viz.,  the  subcutaneous,  subfascial, 
intermuscular,  periosteal,  tendovaginal  and  interglandular  connec- 
tive tissue. 

What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  case  an  animal  has  been  bitten 
by  a  rabid  animal? 
Cauterize  the  wounds ;  excise  the  wounded  tissue  if  possible,  and 
use  strong  disinfectant.     (Pasteur  treatment  and  quarantine.) 

InFL  AM  M  ATION 

Define  inflammation. 

Inflammation  is  tissue  reaction  to  injury,  characterized  by  pain, 
heat,  redness  and  swelling ;  and,  histologically,  by  hypergemia,  blood 
stasis,  changes  in  the  blood-  and  vessel-walls,  and  exudation. 

Name  the  four  cardinal  symptoms  of  inflammation. 

1,  dolor  (pain) ;  2,  calor  (heat)  ;  3,  rubror  (redness) ;  4,  tumor 
(swelling). 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  o£  inflammation. 

Causes :  Mechanical,  thermic  and  chemical  irritants,  and  micro- 
organisms. 

Symptoms:  Heat,  redness,  swelling,  tenderness  and  disturbed 
function. 
14 


210  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Treatment:  Rest,  heat,  cold,  massage,  counter-irritation,  astrin- 
gents, antiseptics  and  operation  (amputation,  incision,  scarification). 

Give  a  classification  of  inflammation. 

According  to  the  character  of  the  exudate :  1,  serous ;  2,  fibrin- 
ous, or  croupous ;  3,  suppurative ;  4,  diphtheritic ;  5,  hemorrhagic ;  6, 
necrotic  or  gangrenous;  7,  productive  or  proliferative;  8,  specific 
(tuberculosis,  glanders,  actinomycosis,  strangles,  anthrax,  etc.). 

Describe  the  inflammatory  appearances  of  the  blood. 

The  white  corpuscles  are  arranged  next  to  the  vessel-wall,  while 
the  red  blood-corpuscles  occupy  the  centre  of  the  stream.  The  white 
cells  are  seen  passing  through  the  walls  of  the  vessels.  A  transu- 
dation of  serum  also  occurs.  In  purulent  inflammation,  leucocytosis 
occurs. 

What  are  the  terminations  of  inflammations? 

1,  Resolution;  2,  new  formations  in  the  form  of  thickenings, 
indurations  and  adhesions ;  3,  gangrene  and  septic  infection. 

Name  five  antiphlogistic  remedies. 

Heat,  cold,  counter-irritants,  massage  and  antiseptics. 

State  the  indications  for  heat  and  for  cold  in  the  treatment  of  inflam- 
mation. 
Heat  is  indicated  in  all  aseptic  forms,  especially  subacute  and 
chronic.    It  is  also  used  in  septic  forms  to  hasten  the  "ripening" 
of  abscesses. 

Cold  is  indicated  in  septic,  as  well  as  in  the  first  stages  of  acute 
and  very  painful  inflammations. 

Describe  the  condition  known  as  "  lampas." 

A  congestion  of  the  hard  palate,  just  posterior  to  the  incisors, 
often  seen  in  young  animals  during  the  eruption  of  teeth.  Rarely 
occurs  in  mature  animals  or  requires  interference.  (Often  referred 
to  as  "a  disease  of  the  stableman's  mind.") 

Ulcer,  Fistula  and  Gangrene 

Define  (a)  fistula,  (b)  ulcer. 

(a)  A  deep,  sinuous  ulcer,  often  leading  to  an  internal  hollow 
organ. 

(b)  An  open  sore  other  than  a  wound,  characterized  by  a  loss 
of  substance  on  a  cutaneous  or  mucous  surface  and  a  gradual  disin- 
tegration and  necrosis  of  the  tissues.  "A  wound  that  has  no 
tendency  to  heal." 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  211 

Give  the  causes  and  treatment  of  ulcer. 

Causes:  Continuous  inflammatory  irritation,  foreign  bodies, 
necrosed  bone,  cartilage  and  teeth ;  constant  licking,  shaking  of  ears 
and  tail;  specific  causes,  as  tuberculosis,  glanders,  actinomycosis, 
etc. ;  microorganisms. 

Treatment :  Remove  cause ;  extirpate,  curette,  fire  with  hot  iron, 
or  use  chemical  cauterizing  agents.  Internally,  potassium  iodide  is 
a  specific  for  actinomycosis ;  glanders  ulcers  are  not  treated. 

Name  ten  important  fistulae  in  domestic  animals. 

1.  Fistula  of  lateral  cartilages  (Quittor). 

2.  Tooth  fistula. 

3.  Bone  fistula. 

4.  Fistula  of  the  spermatic  cord  following  castration. 

5.  Fistulous  withers  and  poll  evil. 

6.  Milk  fistula. 

7.  Salivary  fistula. 

8.  Ear  fistula  in  the  horse  (teratomata). 

9.  (Esophageal  fistula. 
10.  Vaginorectal  fistula. 

Define  gangrene.     Name  the  different  kinds  and  give  treatment. 

Gangrene  is  defined  as  the  death  of  tissue,  due  either  to  direct 
destruction  of  a  part  by  burns,  etc.,  to  interference  with  the  circu- 
lation, or  to  insufficient  blood-supply. 

Kinds :  Dry  and  moist ;  hot  and  cold ;  putrid ;  circumscribed  and 
progressive;  septic  and  aseptic;  emphysematous;  coagulation- 
necrosis. 

Treatment:  Operative  removal  of  the  dead  part;  amputate  a 
whole  organ  or  part  if  necessary ;  thorough  disinfection. 

Tumors 

Define  tumor.     Give  a  classification  of  tumors. 

A  tumor  is  a  mass  of  new  tissue  which  persists  and  grows  inde- 
pendently of  its  surrounding  structures,  and  which  has  no  physio- 
logical use. 

Clinical  classification :  malignant  and  non-malignant  or  benign. 

Differentiate  malignant  tumors  and  non-malignant  tumors. 

Malignant  tumors  develop  rapidly  with  a  destruction  of  neigh- 
boring tissues,  have  a  tendency  toward  ulcerative  degenerations, 
and  are  especially  distinguished  for  the  formation  of  metastases 
and  the  production  of  cachexia. 


212  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Non-malignant  tumors  have  a  central  growth,  push  the  tissues 
aside  and  are  usually  encapsulated.  They  do  not  spread  by  metas- 
tasis and  are  only  harmful  when  by  reason  of  size  or  location  they 
interfere  with  the  body  functions. 

Give  the  prognosis  and  the  treatment  of  epithelioma  of  the  tongue. 

Prognosis:  Favorable  if  situated  on  the  anterior  extremity.  If 
on  the  base,  it  is  best  to  slaughter. 

Treatment.  Amputate  all  of  the  diseased  part  and  treat  the 
wound  antiseptically. 

CONCREMENTS 

What  is  a  calculus?    Name  the  different  varieties  of  calculi  and  state 
w^here  each  variety  is  found. 
A  calculus  is  an  abnormal  concretion  occurring  within  the  ani- 
mal body  and  usually  composed  of  mineral  salts. 

1.  Urinary:  Found  in  the  kidney  (renal),  in  the  bladder 
(cystic),  and  in  the  urethra  (urethral). 

2.  Intestinal :  Found  in  the  large  intestines  and  rectum. 

3.  Salivary :  Found  in  Steno  's  duct. 

4.  Chondroids,  or  arthritic  calculi :  Found  in  joints  and  tendon- 
sheaths,  mucous  bursEe,  and  in  the  guttural  pouches. 

5.  Milk :  Found  in  the  milk-cisterns  and  teats. 

6.  Preputial :  Found  in  the  preputial  sac  of  the  horse,  commonly 
called  *'bean." 

Hernia  and  Prolapse 

Define  (a)  hernia,  (b)  prolapse. 

(a)  The  passage  of  viscera  from  body-cavities  without  an  injury 
to  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane ;  the  viscera  protrude  through  an 
abnormal  opening. 

(b)  The  free  passage  of  viscera  through  natural  or  artificial 
body-openings  without  a  covering  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane. 

Classify  hernia  according  to  (a)  condition,  (b)  situation. 

(a)  Reducible  and  irreducible. 

(b)  Umbilical,  inguinal,  scrotal,  ventral,  femoral,  perineal,  rec- 
tal, vaginal,  diaphragmatic,  and  hernia  of  the  fiank. 

Bones 

Define  (a)  ostitis,  (b)  periostitis,  (c)  osteomyelitis. 

(a)  Inflammation  of  a  bone,  especially  of  the  Haversian  spaces, 
canals,  and  their  branches. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  213 

(b)  Inflammation  of  the  covering  of  a  bone. 

(c)  Inflammation  of  the  bone-marrow  or  bone  and  marrow. 

Give  cause,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  aseptic  periostitis. 

Caused  by  traumatisms  acting  subcutaneously,  such  as  kicks, 
blows,  treads,  and  pressure  on  the  interdental  space. 

Symptoms :  Pain  on  palpation,  lameness,  swelling  and  heat. 

Treatment:  Moist  warmth,  massage,  absorbing  agents  as  cam- 
phor, iodine  ointment  or  mercurial  ointment. 

What  is  caries? 

A  liquefaction  necrosis  of  bone  or  teeth  in  which  they  become 
softened,  discolored  and  porous.  There  is  usually  associated  with  it 
a  chronic  inflammation  of  the  periosteum  and  surrounding  tissues, 
and  an  abscess  formation  which  burrows  through  the  soft  parts 
until  it  opens  externally  by  a  sinus  or  fistula. 

Define  fracture.     Give  the  varieties  of  fracture. 

A  fracture  is  a  break  or  division  of  the  continuity  of  a  bone. 
Varieties:  Simple  and  compound;  complete  and  incomplete  (fis- 
sure and  green-stick)  ;  transverse,  oblique  and  longitudinal ;  simple  , 
and  multiple  (comminuted). 

Define  (a)  simple  fracture,  (b)  compound,  and  (c)  comminuted  frac- 
ture. 

(a)  A  fracture  of  a  bone  without  injury  to  the  skin. 

(b)  A  fracture  of  a  bone  accompanied  by  a  skin  wound,  so  that 
the  bone  is  exposed  and  entrance  of  infection  is  possible. 

(c)  A  fracture  of  a  bone  in  which  the  bone  is  broken  into  small 
fragments. 

Describe  the  modes  of  union  of  fractures. 

Regeneration  of  the  periosteum  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  the 
bone-marrow  occurs  and  a  granulation  tissue  is  formed,  which  subse- 
quently ossifies. 

What  pathologic  conditions  render  bones  liable  to  fracture? 

An  abnormal  fragility  due  to  senility,  rarefying  ostitis,  osteo- 
malacia, rachitis,  caries,  sarcoma  and  tuberculosis  of  bone.  Diseases 
of  the  nervous  system,  as  seen  following  neurotomy  (trophoneurotic 
bone  atrophy) ;  anchylosis  which  restricts  the  mobility  of  the  joints. 

Describe  a  method  of  applying  a  plaster-of-Paris  dressing  for  fixation 
in  case  of  fracture. 
After  reposition  of  the  broken  ends  of  the  bone  is  effected,  the 
limb  is  covered  with  a  pad  of  cotton,  over  which  a  flannel  bandage 


214  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

is  applied.  Over  this,  the  plaster-of-Paris  bandages  are  placed. 
These  bandages  are  prepared  by  dusting  with  fresh  plaster  and 
soaking  for  a  short  time  in  warm  water.  After  a  sufficient  number 
of  plaster  bandages  have  been  applied,  the  outside  may  be  strength- 
ened by  applying  some  of  the  plaster  made  into  a  paste. 

Make  a  diagram  of  the  various  methods  of  firing. 

^^ 


Joints 

Define  arthritis.     Name  the  common  varieties  of  arthritis. 

Arthritis  is  an  inflammation  of  a  joint. 

1,  serous ;  2,  suppurative ;  3,  deforming ;  4,  tubercular. 

Define  (a)  anchylosis,  (b)  corpora  libra,  (c)  arthritis,  (d)  periarthritis, 
(e)  synovitis. 

(a)  Abnormal  immobility  and  consolidation  of  a  joint. 

(b)  A  free  body  of  organic  structure  occurring  pathologically 
in  joints. 

(c)  Inflammation  of  a  joint. 

(d)  Inflammation  of  the  tissues  around  a  joint. 

(e)  Inflammation  of  a  synovial  membrane. 

Give  the  treatment  of  an  open  joint. 

In  case  of  a  fresh  wound,  do  not  probe  but  irrigate  the  opening 
with  the  mildest  non-irritating  antiseptic,  or  physiologic  salt  solu- 
tion, suture,  and  apply  iodoform  gauze  and  bandage.  Cauterization 
of  punctured  openings  is  often  beneficial.  Seal  with  collodion  after 
thoroughly  disinfecting  as  described  above.  Suppurating  wounds 
should  be  drained,  irrigated  and  packed  with  antiseptic  gauze. 
Such  wounds  are  usually  incurable.  The  swelling  produced  by 
blistering  is  often  employed  to  close  wounds  around  joints. 

Define  false  joint.    At  what  points  is  a  false  joint  most  likely  to  occur? 
A  false  joint  is  a  permanent  movable  union  between  ])iec'es  of 
bone  which  occurs  when  callus  formation  fails  to  produce  firm  union 
between  the  fragments. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  215 

Occurs  most  commonly  between  the  head  of  the  femur  and  the 
OS  innominata,  following  fracture  of  the  rim  of  the  cotyloid  cavity. 
Also  occurs  on  the  first  phalanx,  and  on  the  posterior  false  ribs. 

Define  luxation.    Give  causes  of  luxation. 

Luxation  is  the  displacement  of  the  articular  surfaces  of  one 
or  more  bones  of  a  joint  from  their  normal  relation  to  each  other. 

Causes:  Traumatism,  pathological  changes  (alterations  of  the 
joint  from  disease,  or  paralysis  of  the  surrounding  muscles),  and 
congenital  malformations. 

Tendons  and  Tendon-sheaths 

iCjive  the  causes  and  the  treatment  of  tendinitis. 

Strains,  overextensions,  and  partial  ruptures.  Predisposing 
causes:  Too  long  and  too  weak  fetlocks,  low  heels  and  long  toes, 
abnormal  positions,  enforced  standing.  Occurs  secondary  to  infec- 
tious diseases  (contagious  pleuropneumonia). 

Treatment:  Rest.  In  acute  conditions,  cold  irrigation  and  cold 
compresses;  slight  massage  and  a  pressure  bandage;  shorten  the 
toe  and  shoe  with  high  heel  calks  and  no  toe  calk.  Chronic  cases 
need  warmth,  blistering  and  sometimes  firing,  in  addition  to  rest 
and  special  shoe. 

What  are  the  causes  of  tendon  rupture? 

Partial  rupture  occurs  in  strains.  Complete  rupture  is  caused 
by  traumatisms,  overexertion  and  overstretching,  especially  when 
predisposed  by  suppurative  inflammation,  necrosis,  contagious 
pleuropneumonia,  osteomalacia  or  continued  standing  on  three  feet. 

Give  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  tendovaginitis. 

Causes:  Traumatisms,  infectious  diseases  (contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia, septicgemia,  articular  rheumatism,  contagious  abortion, 
etc.),  cold,  infection  through  wounds. 

Symptoms:  Lameness,  more  or  less  pain  and  local  heat;  soft, 
fluctuating  or  crepitating  swelling  in  the  region  of  affected  tendon- 
sheath.  In  infected  forms,  abscess  formation  may  appear,  accom- 
panied by  fever.  Chronic  cases  show  thickening  and  adhesions  of 
the  tendon-sheaths. 

Treatment:  Rest.  Moist  warmth,  pressure  bandage.  Long- 
standing cases  require  mild  blisters,  or  iodine  applications.  Severe 
chronic  cases  may  be  benefited  by  firing.  Infected  cases  should  be 
treated  with  antiseptics.  Supply  free  drainage  for  pus  if  present, 
not  hesitating  to  open  the  sheath  its  full  length  if  deemed  necessary. 


216  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

What  are  so-called  "wind  galls"?     State  their  cause. 

An  accumulation  of  a  serous  fluid  in  a  dilated  tendon-sheath, 
non-inflammatory  and  painless.  Occur  most  frequently  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  fetlock.  Caused  by  chronic  serous  tendovaginitis,  result- 
ing from  continued,  severe  exertions.  Occasionally  seen  following 
contagious  pleuropneumonia. 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  blister  for  bowed  tendons. 

Hydrargyri  biniodidi    3ij 

Pulv.    cantharides    3ij 

01.  adipis 3ij 

Misce. 

Sig. — Apply  with  friction  to  affected  tendons. 

Muscles  and  Nerves 

Define  myositis.     Give  causes  and  symptoms. 

Myositis  is  an  inflammation  of  a  muscle. 

Causes:  Traumatic,  infection,  cold  and  parasites. 

Symptoms :  Pain,  swelling  and  local  heat.  Symptoms  are  local- 
ized in  most  cases,  as  contrasted  with  rheumatism  which  has  a  ten- 
dency to  shift  from  place  to  place  and  has  no  definite  local  boundary. 
Special  symptoms,  such  as  lameness,  corresponding  to  the  part 
affected. 

Give  results  of  neurotomy  when  unfavorable. 

Fractures,  due  to  neurotrophic  atrophy;  necrosis  of  extremity 
following  infected  wounds ;  neuroma  forming  on  end  of  cut  nerve ; 
•    regeneration  and  restored  function. 

Give  the  differential  symptoms  of  paralysis  originating  in  the  brain, 
cord  and  periphery. 
Brain:  Monoplegia  or  hemiplegia;  one  or  more  cranial  nerves 
often  involved;  more  or  less  loss  of  consciousness. 

Cord :  Paraplegia  more  common ;  psychic  derangements  absent ; 
cranial  nerves  unaffected;  bladder  and  rectum  simultaneously 
paralyzed. 

Periphery :  Single  muscles  or  groups  of  muscles  affected  without 
cerebral  or  spinal  complications. 

What  is  "  Sweeney  "?     What  treatment  is  indicated? 

"Sweeney"  is  the  term  applied  by  horsemen  to  the  atrophy  of 
the  spinati  muscles  which  follows  paralysis  of  the  suprascapular 
nerve. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  217 

It  is  frequently  incurable.  Massage,  counter-irritants,  subcu- 
taneous injections  of  veratrin,  turpentine  and  Lugol  's  solution  have 
been  used  with  more  or  less  beneficial  results. 

Diseases  of  Blood-vessels 

Define  aneurism.     Give  the  varieties  of  aneurism. 

An  aneurism  is  a  sac  formed  by  the  dilatation  of  the  walls  of  an 
artery  and  filled  with  blood. 

True  aneurism  is  one  in  which  the  sac  is  formed  by  the  coats  of 
the  arterial  walls,  one  of  which,  at  least,  is  unbroken. 

False  aneurism  is  one  in  which  all  of  the  coats  of  the  artery  are 
ruptured  and  the  blood  is  retained  by  the  surrounding  tissues. 

Define  and  give  causes  of  (a)  arteritis,  (b)  phlebitis. 

(a)  Inflammation  of  an  artery. 

(b)  Inflammation  of  a  vein. 

Causes:  Traumatisms,  infection,  parasites,  phlebotomy,  emboli 
and  intravenous  medication. 

Define  lymphangitis.     Give  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment. 

Inflammation  of  lymphatic  vessels.  Usually  follows  wound  in- 
fection, due  to  the  entrance  of  pus-producing  organisms  into  the 
open  lymphatic  vessels.  Specific  infections,  as  saccharomyces  farci- 
minosis,  sporothrix,  etc. 

Symptoms:  Lymph-vessels  stand  out  prominently  as  cord-like 
swellings,  interrupted  by  nodules  (the  valves)  ;  lymph-glands  in 
the  affected  region  usually  enlarged.  Abscess  formation  along  the 
course  of  the  vessels,  at  the  seat  of  valves.  Chronic  eases  show  great 
thickening  of  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  connective  tissue. 

Treatment:  Cold  irrigation.  Open  abscesses  and  give  free 
drainage  to  wounds.  Use  antiseptics  freely.  Hot  fomentations 
may  be  useful  in  long-standing  cases.  Internal  administration  of 
potassium  iodide  in  specific  infections,  sporothricosis,  epizootic 
lymphangitis. 

Eye,  Ear  and  Throat 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  acute  catarrhal  conjunc- 
tivitis. 
Causes :  Cold,  traumatisms,  foreign  bodies,  strong  gases,  smoke, 
infection,  accompanies  certain  infectious  diseases,   influenza,   dog 
distemper,  etc. 

Symptoms:  Redness,  lachrymation,  discharge  of  mucopurulent, 
or  simply  watery,  nature.    Swelling  and  closure  of  the  lids  which  are 


218  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

usually  covered  with  crusts  and  stuck  together  in  the  morning.    In- 
protracted  cases,  ulcers  form  on  the  cornea. 

Treatment :  Remove  foreign  bodies ;  a  few  drops  of  a  4  per  cent, 
boric  acid  solution  in  the  eye  several  times  daily,  or  a  1  per  cent, 
silver  nitrate  solution  may  be  used.  Keep  the  eye  covered  with  a 
pad  soaked  in  boric  acid  solution,  which  not  only  serves  an  antiseptic 
and  astringent  purpose  but  rests  the  eye  by  occluding  the  light. 

Describe  amaurosis  and  give  its  causes  and  treatment. 

Amaurosis  is  blindness,  especially  blindness  occurring  without 
any  apparent  lesion  of  the  eye,  and  due  to  disease  of  the  optic  nerve, 
retina,  spine  or  brain. 

Causes:  Renal  disease,  diabetes,  uraemia,  cerebral  diseases, 
reflexly  from  remote  irritation,  congenital. 

Treatment:  Unsatisfactory.  May  disappear  on  subsidence  of 
the  causative  factor.    Eliminate  the  cause  if  it  can  be  determined. 

Give  fully  the  symptoms,  prognosis  and  treatment  in  a  severe  case  of 
periodic  ophthalmia. 

Symptoms:  Local  heat  and  tenderness,  lachrymation,  photo- 
phobia, arborescent  appearance  of  the  injected  capillaries  extending 
from  the  sclera  down  in  the  cornea,  fibrinopurulent  exudation  in 
the  anterior  chamber,  iridocyclochoroiditis  present.  Course,  about 
two  weeks.  Patient  may  be  blind  in  one  eye  and  show  synechice  in 
the  other  from  previous  attacks.  Atrophy  of  the  globe  after  two 
or  more  attacks. 

Prognosis:  Unfavorable.  Usually  recover  from  one  attack  but 
several  subsequent  attacks,  at  intervals  of  one  to  six  months,  are 
inevitable  and  blindness  is  sure  to  result. 

Treatment:  Rest  the  eye  with  atropine.  Boric  acid,  cocaine 
hydrochlorate  and  atropine  sulphate  make  a  useful  combination. 
Keep  patient  in  darkened  room.  Cover  the  eye  with  a  pad  soaked 
in  boric  acid  solution.  The  use  of  counter-irritants,  blisters  and 
setons,  so  commonly  employed,  inflict  useless  pain.  The  disease 
usually  runs  a  two  weeks'  course  in  spite  of  any  treatment. 

Define  (a)  entropion,  (b)  ectropion,  (c)  glaucoma,  (d)  staphyloma. 

(a)  Inversion  of  the  eyelid,  (b)  E version  or  turning  out  of  the 
eyelid,  (c)  A  disease  of  the  eye  marked  by  intense  intra-ocular 
pressure  resulting  in  hardness  of  the  eye,  atrophy  of  the  optic  disk 
and  blindness.  It  is  due  to  obstruction  of  the  lymph  circulation, 
(d)  A  protrusion  of  the  cornea  or  sclera  resulting  from  iutiam- 
mation.    . 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  v  219 

What  animals  suffer  from  contagious  ophthalmia?     Give  the  diagnosis 
and  treatment  of  contagious  ophthalmia. 
Seen  principally  in  cattle.     Several  cattle  in  the  herd  show 
laehrymation,  photophobia,  mucopurulent  discharge,  swelling  and 
tenderness  of  the  lids,  fibrinopurulent  exudate  in  the  anterior  cham- 
ber.   In  some  mild  cases,  only  a  conjunctivitis  is  seen. 

Treatment :  Eyewash  of  boric  acid  solution  (4  per  cent.)  to  which 
may  be  added  1  per  cent,  of  atropine  sulphate.  Protect  the  eyes 
from  all  bright  light.    Segregate  affected  animals. 

Define  cataract.  Name  the  different  forms  of  cataract  and  give  the 
diagnosis. 

A  cataract  is  any  pathological  change  in  the  lens  or  its  capsule 
which  diminishes  its  transparency. 

Varieties:  Congenital,  senile,  soft,  hard,  incipient,  mature,  pri- 
mary, secondary,  capsular,  lenticular,  stationary,  progressive, 
traumatic,  etc. 

Diagnosis:  History  of  previous  attacks  of  periodic  ophthalmia, 
or  simple  ophthalmia;  atrophy  of  the  globe;  dilate  the  pupil  with 
atropia  and  illuminate  the  depth  of  the  eye  with  the  ophthalmoscope 
when  opacities  will  be  more  readily  detected.  Hold  a  lighted  candle 
before  the  eye ;  in  the  normal  eye,  three  images  are  reflected,  one 
from  the  cornea,  one  from  the  anterior  capsule  of  the  lens  and  one 
from  the  posterior  capsule.  Any  opacities  in  the  lens  will  cause  the 
posterior  image  to  become  indistinct  as  it  passes  over  that  spot. 

What  conditions  may  give  rise  to  cataract  ? 

Impaired  nutrition  of  lens,  inflammation  of  the  iris,  choroid, 
ciliary  body  and  retina,  periodic  ophthalmia,  diabetes,  cell  prolifera- 
tion in  the  lens. 

Give  the  treatment  of  lachrymal  fistula. 

Establish  drainage  through  the  lachrymal  duct  by  forcing  borie 
acid  solution  through  it  from  below  upward  under  slight  pressure. 
Curette  the  fistulous  opening  and  cauterize  with  silver  nitrate. 

Describe  an  operation  for  enucleation  of  the  eye. 

General  angesthesia  is  essential.  Wash  and  disinfect  the  eye  and 
surrounding  parts.  Retract  the  lids ;  make  the  incision  through  the 
conjunctiva  around  the  corneal  margin  and  dissect  back  the  con- 
junctiva to  the  insertion  of  muscles.  With  small  curved  scissors 
cut  the  muscles  near  their  tendinous  insertion.  Then  with  strong 
curved  scissors,  cut  the  optic  nerve  with  one  snip.  The  eye  can 
then  be  pried  out.  Check  hemorrhage  by  packing  the  cavity  with 
aseptic  gauze  for  a  few  hours. 


220  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  otorrhcEa  of  the  dog.     Give  treatment. 

An  inflammatory  condition  of  the  external  auditory  meatus.  It 
is  characterized  by  a  discharge  of  a  yellowish-brown  secretion, 
usually  mixed  with  pus,  pruritus  and  shaking  of  the  ears. 

Treatment:  Cleanse  with  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  probe  and 
cotton.  Dry  with  ether  and  keep  dry  by  dusting  lycopodium  over 
the  affected  parts.    Repeat  the  treatment  daily. 

Mention  two  common  causes  of  deafness  in  the  dog. 

Congenital  deafness  is  occasionally  met  with ;  in  old  age,  dogs 
become  more  or  less  deaf;  otitis  media,  inflammation  of  the  middle 
ear,  is  generally  foUowed  by  deafness. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  diagnosis  of  pus  in  the  guttural  pouches. 
Intermittent,  unilateral  or  bilateral,  nasal  discharge.  Appears 
in  considerable  quantity  at  times  and  then  entirely  disappears.  The 
discharge  is  increased  when  the  head  is  lowered  after  being  checked 
up,  when  eating  off  the  floor,  swallowing  and  when  pressure  is 
applied  over  the  pouch.  Swelling  may  or  may  not  be  marked. 
Dyspnoea  is  sometimes  produced  by  the  pressure  on  the  larynx. 
Similarly,  difficulty  in  swallowing  may  be  present.  Diagnosis  can 
be  confirmed  by  passing  the  Eustachian  catheter. 

Describe  the  Viborg  or  the  Chabert  method  of  opening  the  guttural 
pouch. 

Viborg 's  method:  Secure  the  patient  in  lateral  decubitus  with 
the  head  extended.  General  anaesthesia  is  advisable.  Locate 
Viborg 's  triangle  (the  space  between  the  posterior  border  of  the 
inferior  maxilla,  the  terminal  tendon  of  the  sternomaxillaris  muscle 
and  the  external  maxillary  vein).  Shave  and  disinfect  this  area. 
Draw  the  skin  tense  and  make  an  incision,  5  cm.  long,  through  the 
skin  and  skin  muscle  immediately  beneath  and  parallel  to  the  tendon 
aforementioned.  Force  a  passage  with  the  finger  or  blunt  instru- 
ment through  the  loose  connective  tissue  to  the  guttural  pouch. 

In  Chabert' s  method,  the  incision  (6  cm.  long)  is  made  about 
1  cm.  in  front  of  the  lower  half  of  the  wing  of  the  atlas  and  parallel 
thereto.  The  parotid  gland  is  drawn  forward  and  an  incision 
is  made  parallel  to  and  through  the  fibres  of  the  stylomaxillaris 
muscle  thus  exposed.    This  leads  directly  into  the  guttural  pouch. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  postphar5mgeal  abscess. 

Causes:    Injuries   to   the    pharyngeal    walls;    inflammation    of 

same  or  neighboring  tissues;  infection  following  injury  by  sliarp 

objects,  balling  gnn,  etc.     Infection  extending  from  suppurative 

parotitis  to  the  subparotid  lymph-glands.    Often  seen  in  strangles. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  221 

SjTnptoms:  Swelling,  dyspnoea  and  dysphagia  from  pressure; 
head  extended;  slight  fever. 

Treatment:  Open  through  Viborg's  triangle  as  described  in  pre- 
ceding answer.  In  case  of  subparotid  abscess,  use  a  blunt  instru- 
ment or  finger  to  burrow  through  the  parotid  gland.  Some  operators 
prefer  to  make  the  incision  on  the  inedian  line  and  dissect  through 
to  the  abscess  along  the  lateral  wall  of  the  larynx.  In  all  cases, 
good  drainage  and  thorough  disinfection  are  necessary.  Use  trache- 
otomy tube  to  avoid  suifocation  which  may  follow  the  excitement 
caused  by  operating. 

Give  the  treatment  of  pharyngeal  pol3rpi. 

Adjust  the  mouth  speculum  and  attempt  grasping  and  removing 
the  polypi  with  the  hand  introduced  through  the  mouth.  If  this 
method  fails,  perform  Laryngectomy,  pass  hand  or  ecraseur  through 
the  larynx  into  the  pharynx  and  remove  the  growth,  preferably 
by  torsion.  If  this  fails,  cut  the  growth  away  with  scissors  or 
scalpel. 

Give  the  treatment  for  choking. 

Four  methods  may  be  employed. 

1.  Return  the  foreign  body  into  the  pharynx  by  manipulations 
over  the  oesophageal  furrow  and  with  the  hand  in  the  pharynx, 
or  with  extracting  instruments;  emetics  such  as  apomorphine  and 
veratrine  may  assist. 

2.  Reduce  the  size  of  the  foreign  body  i7i  situ  (soft  objects  may 
be  crushed  by  hand). 

3.  Force  the  foreign  body  onward  into  the  stomach  with  the 
probang.  Great  caution  should  be  observed  in  case  of  sharp  objects 
as  bones,  etc.    Likewise,  a  mass  of  oats  may  be  more  firmly  impacted. 

4.  CEsophagotomy.  This  can  only  be  performed  on  the  cervical 
portion  of  the  oesophagus  and  is  only  practised  when  the  other 
methods  fail. 

Unless  symptoms  are  alarming,  it  is  best  to  avoid  all  treatment 
in  case  of  impaction  of  oats,  as  such  cases  often  remedy  themselves 
in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  In  all  cases,  withhold  food  and  water 
until  the  condition  is  relieved  to  avoid  the  danger  of  inhalation 
pneumonia. 

Describe  cesophagotomy. 

The  animal  can  be  operated  upon  in  the  standing  or  recumbent 
position.  The  point  of  operation  is  usually  determined  by  the 
location  of  the  foreign  body  which  necessitates  the  operation.  Shave 
and  disinfect  the  skin.    Make  an  incision  10  cm.  long  through  the 


222  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

skin  and  skin  muscle  on  the  left  side  between  the  anterior  border 
of  the  mastoidohumeralis  muscle  and  the  jugular  vein.  Separate 
the  loose  connective  tissue  with  the  fingers  down  to  the  oesophagus 
■which  lies  between  the  left  scalenus  muscle,  the  trachea  and  the  jugu- 
lar vein.  Draw  the  cesophagus  out  through  the  wound  and  make 
a  longitudinal  incision  in  it,  sufficiently  large  for  the  removal  of  the 
foreign  body.  The  wound  in  the  cesophagus  is  closed  by  an  intes- 
tinal suture,  i.e.,  the  external  coats  are  drawn  together  (Lembert 
suture).  The  external  wound  may  be  left  open,  or  sutured,  and  a 
drainage  tube  inserted. 

Describe  the  treatment  of  choking  in  the  cow. 

See  answer  to  the  two  preceding  questions.  Choking  in  cattle  is 
often  accompanied  by  bloating  (tympanites).  This  should  be  re- 
lieved by  puncturing  the  rumen  and  leaving  the  cauula  in  position 
until  relief  is  obtained,  several  days  if  necessary. 

Give  the  diagnostic  symptoms  of  roaring.     Describe  an  operation  for 
roaring. 

Symptoms :  Inspiratory  dyspncea,  very  marked  after  severe  exer- 
tion, galloping  or  heavy  pulling  without  any  visible  cause.  Posi- 
tive diagnosis  is  made  by  examining  the  larynx  with  the  laryngoscope 
or  by  introducing  a  finger  through  an  opening  made  in  the  larynx 
(laryngotomy).  In  case  of  roaring,  the  left  vocal  cord  lies  motion- 
less in  the  lumen  of  the  larynx.    Sometimes  both  sides  are  paralyzed. 

Operation:  Secure  the  animal  in  lateral  recumbency.  Shave 
a  large  area  in  the  laryngeal  region,  disinfect  thoroughly.  Chloro- 
form anaesthesia  is  necessary.  When  anaesthesia  is  complete,  roll 
the  patient  upon  its  back  with  the  head  extended.  Make  a  longi- 
tudinal incision,  15  cm.  long,  through  the  skin,  subcutem  and  muscles 
on  the  median  line  directly  over  the  larynx.  Continue  the  incision 
through  the  cricothyroidean  ligament  and  cricoid  cartilage.  Con- 
trol hemorrhage  with  hasmostatic  forceps.  Insert  retractors  and 
carefully  dissect  out  the  mucous  lining  of  the  lateral  ventricle  be- 
tween the  vocal  cord  and  the  arytenoid  cartilage  on  the  affected  side. 
This  must  be  carefully  done  because  any  remaining  portion  of  this 
mucous  membrane  will  secrete  mucus  and  form  a  mucous  cyst. 
The  object  is  to  grow  the  vocal  cord  to  the  wall  of  the  larynx  and 
this  is  accomplished  by  denuding  the  opposing  surfaces  of  their 
mucous  membrane.  The  after-treatment  consists  of  daily  cleansing 
of  the  external  wound  and  complete  rest  for  six  weeks.  The  patient 
should  be  carefully  watched  for  the  first  48  hours  to  see  that 
dyspnoea  is  not  provoked  by  the  swelling  in  the  region  of  tlie  wound- 
In  such  cases,  a  tracheotomy  tube  should  be  inserted  in  the  opening. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  223 

He.vd  and  Neck 

Define  (a)  gleet,  (b)  epistaxis. 

(a)  Chronic  uasal  catarrh  characterized  by  a  thick,  purulent 
discharge,  ulcers  in  the  nasal  cavity,  bulging  of  the  sinuses  and 
enlargement  of  the  submaxillary  lymph-glands. 

(b)  Bleeding  from  the  nose. 

Give  the  causes  and  the  treatment  of  bleeding  from  the  nose. 

Causes:  Traumatisms,  diseases  of  the  mucous  membrane  as  in 
glanders,  gleet,  etc.,  tumor  formation,  fracture  of  nasal  bones,  severe 
exertion. 

Treatment:  Eemove  cause,  irrigate  the  nasal  cavity  with  cold 
water  to  which  may  be  added  some  astringent  agents,  as  tannin, 
aluminum  sulphate,  zinc  sulphate,  etc.  Spray  the  cavity  with  adre- 
nalin chloride.  Plug  the  nostrils  with  cotton  and  keep  the  head 
elevated.  Slight,  and  often  severe,  hemorrhage  will  often  stop  with- 
out any  measures  being  employed  for  its  control. 

What  diseases  of  the  facial  sinuses  require  surgical  interference? 

Empyifimia,  diseased  teeth,  tumors  and  foreign  bodies,  necrosis 
of  the  bony  and  cartilaginous  walls. 

Give  the  surgical  technic  of  trephining  the  frontal  sinuses. 

Operate  on  the  standing  animal  with  the  aid  of  local  antesthesia. 
Shave  and  disinfect  the  region  of  the  frontal  bone  on  a  level  with 
the  superior  border  of  the  orbital  cavity  and  about  1  cm.  from  the 
median  line  of  the  face.  Make  a  circular  incision  of  the  desired 
size  through  the  skin,  subcutem  and  periosteum,  and  remove  the 
encircled  mass  by  separating  the  periosteum  from  the  bone  with 
the  scalpel.  Place  the  trephine  perpendicular  to  the  bone  and  drill 
until  the  centre  bony  plate  loosens,  then  pry  out  the  disc  of  bone. 

Give  the  treatment  of  pus  in  the  nasal  sinuses. 

The  trephining  is  carried  out  in  the  manner  described  in  the 
preceding  answer.  The  point  of  operation  may  be  at  any  point, 
immediately  against  the  median  line  from  the  level  of  the  upper  limit 
of  the  superior  maxillary  sinus  to  the  upper  extremity  of  the  false 
nostril.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  trephining  too  deeply 
and  injuring  the  turbinated  bones  which  lie  close  to  the  nasal  bone. 
Dilute  solutions  of  hydrogen  peroxide  can  now  be  injected  and 
followed  by  a  thorough  irrigation  with  sterile  water.  This  irrigation 
should  be  repeated  daily  until  suppuration  ceases. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  nasal  polypus. 

Sjonptoms :  Stenosis  of  the  nasal  passages,  dyspnoea,  chronic  uni- 
lateral catarrh ;  in  ulcerative  degeneration,  an  ichorous,  fetid,  occa- 


224  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

sionally  hemorrhagic,  nasal  discharge  with  unilateral  swelling  of 
the  submaxillary  Ij^mph-gland  is  seen.  Polypi  may  be  long  enough 
to  protrude  or  be  seen  in  the  nostril. 

Treatment :  Operative  removal  with  scalpel,  scissors  or  ecraseur. 

What  are  the  diseases  for  which  tracheotomy  are  performed?  De- 
scribe the  operation. 

Dyspnoea  due  to  obstructions  in  the  upper  air  passages  from 
roaring,  tumors  or  other  swellings  in  the  nasal  passages,  larynx, 
upper  part  of  the  trachea,  etc.,  foreign  bodies  in  the  trachea,  diseases 
of  the  larynx,  trachea  and  bronchi  which  demand  intratracheal 
irrigation  or  other  treatment. 

Operation :  Shave  and  disinfect  the  skin  over  the  trachea  in  the 
superior  third  of  the  neck.  Operate  on  the  standing  animal,  using 
twitch.  Make  an  incision,  6  to  8  cm.  long,  on  the  median  line, 
through  the  skin  and  between  the  two  sternothyroideus  muscles 
down  on  to  the  trachea.  Remove  a  semicircular  piece  from  each  of 
two  adjoining  rings  (avoid  complete  severance  of  the  rings).  In 
an  emergency,  requiring  great  haste,  two  or  three  rings  may  be  in- 
cised but  the  former  method  is  to  be  preferred  because  of  the  lesser 
liability  of  stenosis  following  healing. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  paralysis  of  the  lips. 

Causes:  Injury  to  the  facial  nerve  where  it  passes  over  the 
posterior  border  of  the  lower  jaw.  Tumors,  pressing  on  the  nerve, 
may  produce  paralysis.  Some  paralyses  are  of  central  origin,  i.e., 
due  to  cerebral  lesions. 

Symptoms :  Lips  are  distorted  to  one  side  in  unilateral  paralysis, 
and  hang  flaccid  in  bilateral  condition.  Difficulty  in  prehension 
of  food  is  noted.  The  lips  and  cheeks  are  injured  by  the  teeth.  In 
paralysis  of  central  origin,  the  upper  eyelid  droops  and  the  ear 
hangs  limp. 

Treatment ;  Remove  accumulated  food  from  the  cheeks  after  each 
meal.  Give  easily  masticated  food.  A  blister  may  be  applied  over 
the  point  where  the  nerve  emerges  on  the  upper  margin  of  the  lower 
maxilla,  but  its  value  is  questionable.  Most  cases  of  peripheral 
jjaralyses  recover  in  4  to  6  weeks. 

Describe  caries  of  the  teeth  and  give  treatment. 

Caries  of  the  teeth  is  the  term  used  to  describe  the  process  which 
results  in  the  gradual  destruction  of  the  cement  and  dentin,  the 
enamel  remaining  comparatively  intact.  Caries  is  caused  by  the 
entrance  of  microorganisms  through  small  openings  in  the  enamel. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  225 

Fermentation  occurs  and  acids  are  formed  which  attack  the  tooth 
structure. 

Treatment :  Extraction  of  the  affected  tooth.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary to  trephine  and  punch  the  tooth  out. 

Give  the  causes  and  the  treatment  of  stomatitis. 

Causes:  Wounds  from  sharp  teeth,  the  bit  and  foreign  bodies; 
infection,  chemicals  and  hot  foods. 

Treatment :  Remove  the  cause ;  file  off  sharp  enamel  points ;  use 
an  astringent,  antiseptic  mouth  wash;  cauterize  ulcers  with  lunar 
caustic  or  paint  with  tincture  of  iodine.  Provide  plenty  of  fresh 
water;  cleanse  the  mouth  after  each  meal. 

Describe  the  appearance  of  a  horse's  mouth  at  the  age  of  (a)  two 
years,  (b)  three  years,  (c)  five  years. 

(a)  The  inferior  dental  arch  is  levelled  at  the  nippers  and 
intermediate  milk-teeth.  The  superior  nippers  stand  out  from  the 
gums  and  behind  them  is  found  a  moderately  sensitive  swelling  which 
is  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  permanent  teeth  on  the  gums  of  the 
palatine  arch. 

(b)  The  permanent  nippers,  above  and  below,  are  level  with  the 
temporary  intermediates  and  corner  teeth. 

(c)  The  mouth  is  complete,  "full-mouth,"  i.e.,  all  the  per- 
manent teeth  have  reached  the  same  level.  The  anterior  borders  of 
the  corners  are  in  wear  but  the  posterior  borders  are  not. 

Describe  the  appearance  of  the  mouth  of  a  horse  at  the  age  of  (a)  seven 
years,  (b)  eight  years,  (c)  fourteen  years. 

(a)  Notch  on  the  posterior  border  of  the  superior  corner  teeth. 
The  nippers  are  oval  in  shape  and  the  intermediates  are  becoming 
so.  The  cups  are  worn  out  of  the  inferior  nippers  and  nearly  out  of 
the  intermediates. 

(b)  The  intermediates  are  oval  and  show  a  triangular-shaped 
central  enamel.  The  corners  are  worn  and  show  their  central  enamel 
somewhat  concave.  The  cups  are  nearly  worn  out  of  the  inferior 
corners. 

(c)  The  nippers  are  becoming  triangular.  The  intermediates 
and  comers  remain  rounded.  The  transverse  arch  of  the  teeth 
becomes  narrower. 

Describe  the  appearance  of  the  mouth  of  the  horse  at  the  age  of  (a) 

six  years,  (b)  ten  years,  (c)  twelve  years,  (d)  fifteen  years. 

(a)   The  nippers  are  worn  and  the  cups  of  the  inferior  pair  are 

worn  out.     The  intermediates  are  becoming  worn  and  the  corners 

are  on  a  level  with  them,  showing  their  anterior  borders  worn  down. 

15 


226  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

(b)  The  nippers  are  rounded,  the  intermediates  are  nearly  so, 
while  the  corners  are  still  oval.  The  cups  are  worn  out  of  all  the 
inferiors  and  the  nippers  and  intermediates  of  the  superior  row. 

(c)  All  the  teeth  are  rounded  and  the  central  enamel  is  gone. 
The  superior  corners  are  levelled. 

(d)  The  nippers  are  triangular,  the  intermediates  are  becoming 
so;  the  corners  are  still  rounded.  The  dental  star  is  round  in  all 
the  lower  teeth  and  is  dark  and  indistinct. 

Describe  the  operation  for  the  repulsion  of  a  diseased  upper  molar 
tooth  of  a  horse. 
Shave  and  disinfect  the  field  of  operation.  Remove  a  circular 
piece  of  skin  and  trephine  through  the  bone  and  alveolar  plate, 
immediately  over  the  fang  of  the  tooth.  "With  scalpel  and  chisel, 
separate  the  bone  and  soft  tissues  over  the  entire  area  of  the  diseased 
tooth.  Apply  a  punch  against  the  fang  of  the  tooth  and  give  a  few 
sharp  blows  with  a  mallet,  directing  the  force  in  a  line  with  the 
long  axis  of  the  tooth,  driving  it  into  the  mouth.  If  the  tooth  cannot 
be  dislodged  in  this  manner,  comminute  it  with  the  chisel  and  mallet 
and  remove  the  fragments.  Cleanse  and  disinfect  the  wound  after 
each  meal,  or  at  least  once  daily. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of 
mastication. 
Symptoms:  Salivation,   tongue   lolling,   inability   to    close   the 
mouth  and  take  nourishment. 

Treatment:  (Beware  of  rabies.)  Feed  with  stomach  tube. 
Apply  electric  current  to  the  masseter  and  temporal  muscles. 

Give  the  method  of  "  bishoping  "  a  horse. 

'  *  Bishoping ' '  is  accomplished  by  drilling  or  gouging  out  a  cavity 
in  the  tables  of  incisor  teeth  and  staining  the  cavity  black  with  silver 
nitrate  or  a  hot  iron.  It  is  a  method  employed  by  unscrupulous 
dealers  ("gyps")  for  the  purpose  of  deception  in  regard  to  the 
age  of  a  horse. 

Mention  four  diseases  and  six  accidental  conditions,  or  injuries,  that 
are  characterized  by  a  copious  discharge  of  saliva. 
Diseases:  Pharyngitis,  stomatitis,  paralysis  of  lower  jaw  and 
dental  caries. 

Accidents:  Wounds  of  the  cheeks,  foreign  bodies  in  the  mouth, 
a  severe  bit,  injuries  of  the  tongue,  bags  of  spices  attached  to  the 
bit,  and  choking. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  227 

Give  the  treatment  of  salivary  calculi. 

Operative  removal  through  the  buccal  cavity  to  avoid  fistuire,  if 
possible.  If  the  duct  must  be  opened,  make  a  transverse  incision 
which  heals  more  readily  than  a  longitudinal  one.  Observe  strict 
aseptic  precautions  and  obtain  healing  by  first  intention  if  possible. 
Withhold  food  for  two  days. 

Describe  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  salivary  fistula. 

Causes:  Wounds  which  penetrate  the  salivary  glands  or  their 
ducts. 

Symptoms:  An  opening  in  the  gland  or  duct  through  which 
there  is  a  continuous  flow  of  saliva,  more  marked  during  eating. 
The  hair  is  matted  or  lost  and  the  pigment  of  the  skin  is  destroyed  by 
the  discharge. 

Treatment :  Fistulte  of  the  gland  sometimes  heal  without  treat- 
ment. Cauterize  with  silver  nitrate  or  actual  cautery.  See  that 
the  opening  of  the  duct  into  the  mouth  is  free,  or  provide  an  arti- 
ficial opening,  and  then  close  the  fistula  with  a  purse-string  suture. 
If  this  fails,  ligate  the  duct  above  the  fistula  and  produce  a  destruc- 
tion of  the  gland  through  pressure  atrophy.  The  gland  may  be 
destroyed  by  the  injection  of  irritating  fluids  into  it  but  this  method 
is  very  painful  and  far  from  surgical. 

What  are  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  actinomycosis  of  the  jaw 
and  face  in  cattle?     Give  the  treatment. 

A  hard,  firm  swelling  which  involves  the  bone.  The  teeth  become 
loosened  because  of  a  purulent,  alveolar  periostitis;  mastication  is 
painful;  the  skin  becomes  thick  and  adherent;  perforation  occurs 
and  a  thick,  yellow  pus  is  exuded  in  which  actinomyces  may  be 
found. 

Treatment :  Mild  cases,  if  treated  early,  respond  to  the  internal 
administration  of  potassium  iodide  until  signs  of  iodism  appear. 
It  is  best  to  dissect  away  all  diseased  tissue  and,  in  severe  cases, 
slaughter. 

Describe  an  operation  for  poll-evil. 

Clip  the  foretop  and  mane  and  shave  the  crest  of  the  neck  over 
the  diseased  area.  Make  a  longitudinal  incision  on  either  side  of 
the  median  line,  and  about  2  inches  from  same,  from  the  top  of  the 
head  down  to  the  posterior  limit  of  the  disease.  These  incisions 
should  be  carried  through  the  skin,  subcutem  and  adipose  tissue  to 
the  ligamentum  nuchge.  Dissect  away  all  necrotic  tissue.  Pack  the 
wound  with  antiseptic  gauze  and  hold  the  packing  in  place  with  tem- 
porary, retaining  sutures.  Remove  pack  in  48  hours  and  use  dry 
dressings  daily. 


228  VETEBINAEY  STATE  BOAED 

Give  the  prognosis  and  the  treatment  of  goitre  (a)  in  the  dog,  (b)  in 
the  horse. 

(a)  Prognosis  is  not  very  hopeful  if  the  growth  is  extensive. 
Treatment  is  unsatisfactory ;  paint  with  tincture  of  iodine  and  give 
potassium  iodide,  internally.  Thyroid  extract,  internally,  is  reputed 
to  give  good  results.  The  cystic  form  of  goitre  can  be  tapped  with  a 
capillary  trocar. 

(b)  Prognosis  favorable ;  seldom  causes  any  inconvenience  unless 
very  large  when  dyspnoea  may  be  produced  by  compression  of  the 
throat.    Treatment,  same  as  in  the  dog. 

Give  treatment  of  cystic  goitre  in  the  dog. 

Withdraw  the  contents  of  the  cyst  by  use  of  the  capillary  trocar 
and  paint  the  overlying  skin  with  tincture  of  iodine. 

Give  the  surgical  technic  of  trifacial  neurectomy. 

General  angesthesia.  Shave  and  disinfect  an  area,  10  cm.  square, 
over  the  infraorbital  foramen.  Make  an  incision  through  the  skin, 
subeutem  and  the  levator  labii  superioris  alaque  nasii  muscle  and 
expose  the  nerve.  Begin  the  incision  1  cm.  above  the  foramen  and 
carry  it  downward  directly  over  the  nerve  a  distance  of  5  to  6  cm. 
Pick  up  the  nerve  with  an  aneurism  needle  and  divide  it  close  to  the 
foramen.  Remove  about  3  cm.  from  the  distal  end.  Suture  the 
wound,  observing  aseptic  precautions. 

Mention  diseases  for  which  phlebotomy  of  the  jugular  vein  is  per- 
formed. 
Congestion  of  the  brain;  diseases  which  are  accompanied  by 
plethora  such  as  azoturia,  congestion  of  the  lungs,  acute  laminitis, 
etc. ;  toxaemic  diseases  such  as  tetanus. 

State  the  various  methods  of  dehorning  cattle. 

Dehorning  shears ;  sawing  off  with  ordinary  saw ;  application  of 
caustic  potash  on  calves  at  the  point  where  the  horn  will  erupt  will 
prevent  the  horn  from  developing. 

Diseases  of  the  Thorax 

Describe  the  operation  for  the  relief  of  hydrothorax. 

Shave  and  disinfect  an  area,  2  cm.  square,  in  the  seventh  inter- 
costal space  on  the  left  side,  immediately  above  the  thoracic  vein. 
Draw  the  skin  aside  and  place  the  trocar  at  the  anterior  border  of 
the  rib  and,  with  a  sharp  thrust,  drive  it  into  the  thoracic  cavity. 
Withdraw  the  stilette  and  allo^  the  liuid  to  escape. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  229 

Describe  symptoms  and  treatment  of  a  fractured  rib. 

Symptoms:  Hurried  breathing;  crepitation  with  each  respira- 
tory movement ;  if  the  pleura  is  injured,  cough  may  be  present.  If 
the  skin  is  broken  (compound  fracture),  fragments  of  bone  may  be 
seen. 

Treatment:  Complete  rest  and  quiet.  In  compound  fracture, 
remove  pieces  of  bone  and  dress  the  wound  antiseptically. 

Give  treatment  for  saddle-galls  and  collar-galls. 

Recent  formations  may  disappear  under  the  application  of  cold 
and  massage,  or  by  painting  with  tincture  of  iodine.  Chronic 
thickenings  and  necrotic  tissue  must  be  removed  with  the  knife. 

Describe  fistula  of  the  withers  and  give  treatment.    . 

A  hot,  painful  swelling  in  the  region  of  the  withers  is  seen. 
There  may  be  a  discharge  of  pus  through  a  small  opening  and  the 
lymph-vessels  in  the  region  stand  out  as  small  cords.  There  is 
usually  necrosis  of  the  skin,  subcutem,  bursas,  fascige,  muscles  and 
bones  in  the  affected  region. 

Treatment:  Operative  removal  of  all  necrotic  tissue.  Provide 
drainage  and  dress  wound  daily  with  antiseptics. 

Give  the  treatment  of  a  case  of  fistulous  withers  of  three  months' 
standing. 
See  answer  to  preceding  question.     In  a  case  of  three  months' 
standing,    considerable    connective-tissue    proliferation    will    have 
occurred ;  this  should  be  removed  along  with  the  necrotic  tissue. 

Diseases  of  the  Abdomen 

Describe  a  surgical  treatment  of  acute  gastric  indigestion. 

Tapping  of  the  stomach:  Shave  and  disinfect  an  area  2  cm. 
square  over  the  point  of  greatest  distention  on  the  left  side  (usually 
between  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  ribs,  about  one  hand 's  breadth 
from  the  spinal  column) .  Use  a  trocar,  8  to  10  inches  long,  and  drive 
it  in  a  vertical  direction  downward  into  the  stomach.  Allow  the 
gas  to  escape.  The  passing  of  the  stomach  tube  would  be  a  surgical 
measure  to  be  preferred. 

Give   the   symptoms   of   rupture   of   the   diaphragm    (diaphragmatic 
hernia). 
Asphyxia  from  compression  of  the  lungs ;  symptoms  of  strangu- 
lation of  the  bowels.    It  is  difficult  to  diagnose.    Tapping  the  intes- 
tines through  the  thoracic  walls  and  the  obtaining  of  ingesta  there- 
from will  aid  in  the  diagnosis.  . 


230  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  operation  of  rumenotomy  in  the  cow. 

Shave  and  disinfect  the  skin  in  the  left  flank.  Introduce  a 
bistoury  through  the  skin,  muscles  and  rumen  wall  at  the  point  where 
the  rumen  is  usually  punctured  and  make  a  quick  downward 
incision,  4  to  6  inches  long.  The  skin  incision  should  be  a  little 
longer  than  that  in  the  wall  of  the  rumen  to  prevent  food  from 
entering  the  peritoneal  sac.  A  piece  of  cloth  may  be  placed  in  the 
lower  angle  of  the  wound  for  the  same  purpose.  Close  the  wound 
in  the  rumen  securely  with  catgut  or  silk,  using  interrupted  sutures. 
Suture  the  abdominal  muscles  in  a  similar  way  and  the  skin  in  the 
usual  way.  Some  operators  draw  the  skin  to  one  side  before  making 
the  incision  through  it  so  that  the  openings  through  the  different 
layers  do  not  overlap. 

Give  the  indications  for  laparotomy  in  the  cow. 

Foreign  bodies  in  the  rumen  or  intestines.  Displacement  of 
internal  organs.  Dystocia,  where  normal  delivery  is  impossible. 
Gut-tie  in  the  ox. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  inguinal  hernia. 

Symptoms :  The  hind  limbs  are  moved  stiffly,  dragging  the  toes. 
The  animal  stretches  out,  shows  slight  colic  and  draws  up  the  testicle 
of  the  affected  side.  Strangulation  of  the  incarcerated  intestines 
may  produce  violent  colicky  symptoms.  In  old-standing  cases,  the 
testicle  is  atrophied  and  flaccid.  Rectal  examination  will  aid  in  the 
diagnosis. 

Treatment:  Fast  the  animal  and  evacuate  the  bowels.  Place 
the  patient  on  its  back,  chloroform  and  replace  the  hernial  contents. 
Apply  active  friction  to  the  cord  to  produce  a  swelling  which  will 
fill  the  abdominal  ring.  (A  mild  vesicant  is  often  used.)  Another 
method  is  to  perform  castration  by  means  of  clamps  and  the  covered 
operation.  The  latter  method  is  to  be  preferred  because  this  defect 
is  transmitted  to  offspring  and  such  animals  should  not  be  used  for 
breeding;  furthermore,  it  is  a  more  satisfactory  and  surer  method. 

Describe  in  detail  the  surgical  method  of  reduction  of  an  inguinal 
hernia  in  a  stallion  without  resorting  to  the  castration  of 
the  same. 
See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Give  the  treatment  of  an  umbilical  hernia,  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  in 
a  colt  one  year  old. 
Produce  an  inflammatory  swelling  of  the  hernial  ring  by  inject- 
ing into  it  a  weak  solution  of  silver  nitrate  and  apply  a  truss.    AI 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  231 

better  method  is  the  radical  operation — ^herniotomy  and  suturing 
of  the  hernial  ring.  Fast  the  animal  and  evacuate  the  bowels. 
Chloroform  anesthesia  is  very  desirable  and  more  humane.  Place 
the  patient  on  its  back,  shave  and  disinfect  the  operative  field. 
Make  an  incision  through  the  skin,  suture  the  hernial  ring  with  silk 
or  chromatized  catgut,  with  or  without  opening  the  peritoneal  cavity. 
Close  the  skin  wound  and  apply  an  antiseptic  dressing  holding  same 
in  place  with  a  body  bandage. 

Describe  a  case  of  rupture  of  the  prepubian  ligament. 

This  condition  occurs  most  commonly  in  pregnant  mares.  It 
appears  as  an  immense  hernial  swelling  on  the  ventral  surface  of 
the  abdomen,  extending  from  the  os  pubis  forward  on  the  abdomen, 
giving  the  animal  a  much  distorted  appearance.  The  mammae  may 
be  drawn  anteriorly  a  distance  of  8  to  12  inches  from  the  normal 
location.    The  patient  is  usually  quiet  unless  strangulation  occurs. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  o£  ascites  in  the  dog. 

Causes:  Obstruction  to  the  circulation  from  diffuse  induration 
of  the  liver,  emboli,  weak  heart,  etc.,  kidxiey  disease,  chronic  peri- 
tonitis and  tuberculosis. 

Symptoms:  An  abnormal  distention  of  the  abdomen.  The 
swelling  is  of  a  fluctuating  nature  and  gives  a  dull  percussion 
sound  which  is  bounded  above  by  a  horizontal  line.  No  matter  what 
attitude  is  assumed  by  the  animal,  thi?  horizontal  line  remains. 
The  patient  has  a  pot-bellied  appearance,  appears  dull  and  becomes 
dyspnoeic  upon  slight  exertion.  Diagnosis  can  be  confirmed  by 
passing  a  trocar  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  and  recovering  some  of  the 
liquid  contents.     The  prognosis  is  bad. 

Treatment:  Remove  the  cause  (heart,  liver  or  kidney  diseases). 
This  is  usually  impossible,  so  that  only  temporary  relief  can  be 
afforded  with  palliatives.  Saline  purgatiTes,  diuretics,  heart  tonics, 
etc.,  may  be  useful.  Puncturing  is  often  beneficial  in  relieving 
severe  dyspnoea. 

Give  the  symptoms  of  intussusception. 

The  sjTnptoms  are  mainly  those  of  obstruction  of  the  bowels  such 
as  continuous  colicky  pains,  passing  of  a  few  fecal  balls  at  first  but 
later  a  cessation  of  defecation,  tympanites,  and  absence  of  peri- 
stalsis. A  manual  examination  per  rectum  may  aid  in  making  the 
diagnosis.  The  pains  may  subside  in  about  12  hours  to  be  followed 
by  chills  and  death. 


232  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  in  detail  the  procedure  of  passing  a  stomach  tube.  What 
are  the  indications  for  the  use  of  this  tube? 
Secure  the  animal  in  the  standing  position  and  restrain  by 
placing  a  twitch  on  the  ear.  Lubricate  the  tube  with  saliva  or 
slippery  elm  tea.  Insert  the  tube  in  the  floor  of  the  nostril  and 
push  it  gently  until  the  pharynx  is  reached.  Llove  the  tube  slowly 
in  and  out  until  swallowing  movements  are  observed.  "When  the 
tube  passes  into  the  oesophagus,  force  it  gently  downward  into  the 
stomach.  By  the  use  of  a  mouth  speculum  or  mouth  gag,  the  tube 
can  be  passed  through  the  mouth. 

Indications  for  use :  Gastric  tympany  or  impaction ;  poisoning ; 
forced  nutrition  when  the  animal  cannot  swallow,  as  in  tetanus. 

Describe  enterocentesis  and  state  when  indicated. 

Shave  and  disinfect  an  area  2  cm.  square,  in  the  right  flank, 
equidistant  from  the  last  rib,  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium  and  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae.  Place  the  trocar 
perpendicular  to  the  skin  and  with  a  sharp  blow  drive  it  into  the 
distended  ceeeum.  Withdraw  the  stilette  and  allow  the  gas  to 
escape. 

This  operation  is  indicated  in  cases  of  intestinal  tjonpany.  It 
is  occasionally  employed  to  introduce  medicines  directly  into  the 
CEecum. 

Name  the  tissues  involved  in  puncturing  the  caecum. 
Skin,  abdominal  muscle,  peritoneum  and  ciecum. 

What  are  some  of  the  unsatisfactory  results  that  are  likely  to  follow 
the  operation  of  puncturing  the  intestines  in  the  horse,  and 
describe  the  technic  you  would  adopt  to  guard  against  them? 

1.  Peritonitis :  Strict  antisepsis.  Have  the  stilette  in  the  canula 
and  press  the  skin  firmly  against  the  abdominal  muscles  when 
withdrawing  the  instrument. 

2.  Abscess  at  the  site  of  puncture:  Same  precautionary  meas- 
ures as  given  in  preceding  paragraph. 

3.  Hemorrhage:  Operate  at  the  proper  point  and  thus  avoid 
large  arteries. 

Diseases  of  the  Urinary  Organs 

Give  the  symptoms  of  urinary  calculi  in  the  bladder.     What  is  the 
method  of  surgical  procedure? 
Frequent   urination   but  passing  of   small   amounts.     Blood- 
stained urine  after  exercise  on  account  of  injuries  of  the  mucous 
membrane  by  the  stone.     Examination  per  rectum  will  reveal  the 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  233 

stone  as  a  firm,  hard  substance.    In  mares,  it  can  be  felt  by  passing 
a  finger  through  the  urethra. 

Perform  urethrotomy  at  the  ischial  notch.  Extract  the  stone 
with  lithotomy  forceps.  If  the  stone  is  too  large  to  be  removed 
entire,  lithotripsy  (crushing  of  the  stone  within  the  bladder)  must 
be  performed,  and  if  this  fails,  dilate  the  neck  of  the  bladder  with 
the  lithotome.  In  mares,  the  stone  can  often  be  removed  through 
the  normal  urethral  opening  (cystic  calculi  are  rare  in  the  mare). 

Give  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  paralysis  o£  the  bladder  in 
the  horse  and  in  the  dog. 

Causes :  Retention  of  urine,  due  to  calculi,  causes  overdistention 
and  paralysis.  HsEmoglobinuria,  spinal  lesions  and  enlarged 
prostates. 

S}Tnptoms:  Urine  discharged  in  small  quantities  when  the  de- 
trusor muscle  alone  is  paralyzed.  If  the  sphincter  muscle  is  para- 
lyzed, an  involuntary  discharge  of  urine  occurs,  especially  when 
the  abdominal  muscles  are  contracted  as  in  defecation. 

Treatment:  Unsatisfactory.  Catheterize  frequently  in  case  of 
great  distention  due  to  paralysis  of  the  detrusor  muscle.  Give  tonics 
such  as  strychnine  and  arsenic. 

Give  the  treatment  of  prolapse  of  the  urinary  bladder  in  the  mare. 

Carefully  cleanse,  disinfect  and  replace  the  viscus.  Suture  the 
wound  in  the  vagina  if  possible.  Prevent  straining  and  recurrence 
by  injecting  lukewarm  water  into  the  replaced  bladder  (local  anaes- 
thetics could  be  used  in  the  water),  and  administer  sedative. 

Give  the  cause,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  rupture  of  the  bladder; 

Causes:  Overdistention,  injuries  by  the  catheter,  calculi,  etc. 

Symptoms :  Absence  of  urination ;  urinif erous  odor  to  the  skin, 
peritonitis  and  death  soon  follows. 

Treatment :  Useless.  Might  attempt  laparotomy  and  suture  the 
rent  in  the  bladder-wall.  Remove  the  obstruction  causing  overdis- 
tention and  rupture. 

Describe  the  operation  of  passing  a  catheter  in  (a)  the  gelding,  (b) 
the  mare,  (c)  the  cow,  (d)  the  steer. 
(a)  Wash  and  disinfect  the  external  parts.  Grasp  the  penis 
firmly  and  pass  a  sterilized  catheter,  lubricated  with  carbolized 
vaseline,  gently  upward  until  an  assistant  feels  it  approaching  the 
ischial  notch.  It  is  then  guided  forward  into  the  bladder.  If  a 
soft-rubber  catheter  is  used,  no  assistant  will  be  necessary. 


234  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

(b)  Wash  and  disinfect  the  external  genitals.  "With  the  fingers 
of  one  hand,  locate  the  urethral  orifice  and  with  the  other  hand 
direct  the  catheter  into  it  and  force  it  gently  into  the  bladder. 

(c)  Same  as  the  mare.  The  urethral  orifice  is  a  little  more  diffi- 
cult to  locate  on  account  of  the  overlying  folds  of  mucous  membrane. 

(d)  Same  as  in  the  gelding.  Only  the  forward  end  of  the 
urethra  as  far  as  the  * '  S '  '-shaped  curve  can  be  catheterized. 

Diseases  op  the  Gener^vtive  Org^^ins 

Describe  the  operation  of  castration  of  the  male.  What  ill  effects  may 
follow  and  how  can  they  be  prevented? 

The  operation  may  be  performed  on  the  standing  animal  but  is 
safer  for  the  operator  if  the  patient  is  cast  and  secured  on  its  back 
or  side.  iWash  and  disinfect  the  scrotum,  grasp  the  testicle,  enclosed 
in  the  scrotum,  and  hold  firmly.  Make  an  incision,  8  to  10  cm.  long, 
parallel  with  and  about  2  cm.  from  the  median  raphe.  Carry  the 
incision  through  the  skin,  dartos  and  tunics  until  the  testicle  pro- 
trudes through  the  opening.  Grasp  the  testicle  and  gently  pull  it 
out.  (By  cutting  the  cremaster  muscle,  the  testicle  can  be  drawn 
out  farther  and  easier.)  Place  the  emasculator  close  up  to  the 
external  ring  and  sever  the  cord.  Leave  the  instrument  in  place 
for  a  few  minutes  to  prevent  hemorrhage.  The  wound  will  usually 
heal  without  any  attention. 

Hemorrhage  may  occur,  but  if  the  emasculator  is  perfect  and 
is  left  in  place  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  there  is  little  danger. 
Blood-clots  may  form  if  the  external  opening  is  too  small.  Wound 
infection  can  usually  be  avoided  by  careful  antiseptic  preparation. 
Scirrhous  cord  may  result  from  leaving  the  cord  too  long  and 
exposed. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  scirrhous  cord. 

Causes:  Wound  infection  following  castration.  J\Iay  be  due  to 
a  faulty  method  of  castration,  leaving  the  cord  too  long  and  exposed. 
Infection  leads  to  a  chronic  inflammation  of  the  stump  of  the  cord. 

Symptoms:  A  firm,  hard,  and  slightly  painful  swelling  in  the 
region  of  the  scrotum ;  a  fistulous  opening,  2  to  4  inches  deep,  dis- 
charging pus.  The  swelling  may  extend  along  the  cord  into  the 
abdominal  cavity. 

Treatment:  Remove  the  diseased  part,  if  external  to  the  abdo- 
men. If  it  extends  into  the  abdomen,  nothing  surgical  can  be  done. 
Potassium  iodide,  internally,  may  help. 

Name  three  diseases  resulting  from  castration. 

Scirrhous  cord,  hydrocele,  peritonitis. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  235 

Mention  in  order  from  without  inward  the  tissues  cut  irt  the  operation 
of  castration  of  the  male. 
Skin,  dartos,  spermatic,  cremasteric  and  infundibuliform  fascijE ; 
the  tunica  vaginalis  and  the  tunica  albuginea. 

Describe  paraphimosis  and  give  treatment. 

A  condition  in  which  the  glans  penis  cannot  be  retracted  into  the 
prepuce,  either  because  the  opening  is  too  narrow,  or  the  glans  too 
large.  More  common  in  the  dog  than  in  the  horse,  because  in  the 
latter  the  outer  folds  of  the  sheath  are  loosely  formed  and  present 
a  wide  opening.  But  occasionally  the  preputial  folds  become  greatly 
swollen  and  prevent  the  return  of  the  penis.  More  often  the 
condition  is  due  to  swelling  of  the  penis. 

Treatment:  Attempt  replacement  by  lubricating  with  oil  and 
applying  pressure  on  the  swollen  penis.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
incise  the  preputial  ring.  Apply  astringent  packs  to  combat  the 
inflammation.  A  suspensory  bandage  will  assist  in  reducing  the 
oedema. 

Describe  a  method  of  amputating  the  penis. 

General  anaesthesia.  Wash  and  disinfect  the  penis  and  preputial 
region.  Apply  a  temporary  elastic  ligature  just  above  the  preputial 
ring.  Grasp  the  penis  with  one  hand  and  with  a  circular  incision, 
about  5  cm.  in  front  of  the  ligature,  or  immediately  in  front  of  the 
preputial  ring,  excise  the  organ.  Ligate  vessels  which  may  be 
bleeding.  Slit  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  urethra  for  a  distance  of  about 
2  cm. ;  spread  it  fan-like  over  the  surrounding  tissues  and  suture 
to  the  same.  A  silk  ligature  can  be  applied  to  the  corpus  caver- 
nosum  just  above  the  point  of  excision  and  allowed  to  remain  for  a 
few  days.    Remove  the  elastic  ligature. 

Give  cause,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  paralysis  of  the  penis. 

Cause :  Due  to  paralysis  of  the  retractor  penis  muscle.  Inability 
to  retract  the  penis  on  account  of  inflammatory  swellings  of  the 
sheath  or  penis  are  erroneously  referred  to  as  paralysis. 

Symptoms :  Inability  to  retract  the  penis  in  the  sheath  or  retain 
it  there  when  replaced.  Insensitiveness  of  the  organ  which  hangs 
limply  and  swings  to  and  fro  when  the  animal  walks. 

Treatment :  Massage  the  retractor  penis  muscle  between  the  anus 
and  scrotum.  Injections  of  veratrine  or  strychnine  may  assist. 
Apply  a  suspensory  bandage  to  prevent  injuries  and  oedema.  Am- 
putation may  be  necessary  as  a  last  resort,  or  better  still,  the  more 
recent  method  of  removing  a  band-like  piece  of  skin  from  the  penis 
(by  encircling  it  with  two  incisions)    equal  in  width  to  one-half 


236  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

the  length  of  the  protruding  organ.     Suture  the  edges  of  the  skin. 
Upon  healing,  the  penis  will  be  drawn  back  nearly  in  normal  position. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  diseased  prostate  in.  the 
stallion. 

Difficulty  in  defecation  and  urination.  Straining  to  urinate 
and  passing  of  a  thin  stream  or  only  in  drops.  Rectal  examination 
reveals,  close  behind  the  bladder,  a  soft,  painful  swelling,  in  acute 
conditions,  and  a  hard  and  painless  swelling  in  chronic  inflammation. 
Abscess  formation  may  fluctuate. 

Treatment :  Laxatives  and  enemas  lessen  the  pressure  from  the 
rectum.  Abscesses  may  be  ruptured  into  the  urethra,  or  evacuated 
with  a  trocar  through  the  rectum.  Catheterize  regularly  until  the 
condition  is  relieved.     Castration  has  been  recommended. 

Give  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  orchitis. 

Causes:  Traumatisms;  extension  from  the  urinary  passages; 
metastatic  inflammation  is  seen  in  glanders  and  strangles. 

Symptoms :  A  hot,  painful  swelling  of  the  testicles.  (Edema  of 
the  scrotum  if  periorchitis  occurs.  Infectious  orchitis  is  accom- 
panied by  fever.  Hemorrhage  may  produce  a  hrematocele  which  is 
very  readily  absorbed. 

Treatment:  A  suspensory  bandage;  astringent  packs  such  as 
Burrow's  lotion.  Paint  with  tincture  of  iodine  when  the  inflam- 
mation subsides.  If  pus  formation  occurs,  early  castration  is  im- 
perative to  prevent  extension  and  a  fatal  peritonitis. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  hydrocele. 

Marked  swelling  of  the  scrotum,  resembling  somewhat  an  in- 
guinal or  scrotal  hernia,  but  is  soft,  elastic,  painless  and  non- 
inflammatory. Differentiated  from  hernia,  by  the  fact  that  the 
swelling  is  confined  principally  to  the  lower  part  of  the  scrotum 
and  tapers  away  as  it  approaches  the  upper  part.  An  exploratory 
needle  puncture  will  decide  all  doubt  if  necessary. 

Treatment:  Injections  of  tincture  of  iodine  into  the  tunica 
vaginalis  after  emptying  the  same  of  its  watery  contents.  Cas- 
tration is  usually  necessary. 

Describe  fully  ovariotomy  in  the  bitch,  including  care  and  after-treat- 
ment. 
Fast  the  patient  for  24  hours  and  give  a  physic  before  opera- 
tion.    Use  a  general  anfesthetic.     Empty  the  bladder.     Shave  and 
disinfect  an  area,  6  cm.  square,  over  the  linea  alba  just  anterior 
to  the  pubic  brim.    JNIake  an  incision  on  the  median  line  about  5  cm. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  237 

long,  extending  anteriorly  from  the  pubis,  cutting  through  the 
skin,  linea  alba  and  peritoneum  with  one  stroke.  Hold  the  wound 
open  with  retractors;  locate  the  uterus  and  grasp  it  with  forceps. 
By  applying  slight  traction  on  the  uterine  cornua,  each  ovary  may 
be  exposed  and  removed  by  torsion  or  ligating  and  cutting.  Draw 
both  cornua,  with  the  ovaries  attached,  through  the  opening  and 
rupture  them  transversely  near  their  bifurcation.  The  body  of  the 
uterus  may  be  ligated  with  catgut  and  the  horns  removed  by  cutting. 
Close  the  skin  and  muscle  wound  with  interrupted  sutures.  Paint 
the  wound  with  collodion  and  apply  a  body  bandage.  Remove  the 
skin  sutures  in  about  three  days  and  cauterize  any  exuberant  granu- 
lations that  may  have  formed.  Feed  sparingly  for  a  few  days  after 
operation. 

Describe  vaginal  ovariotomy  in  the  mare.     Mention  the  accidents  that 
may  occur. 

Past  the  patient  for  24  hours  and  give  a  physic  before  operation. 
Secure  the  patient  in  the  stocks,  bandage  the  tail  and  draw  it  aside, 
cleanse  the  vulva,  clitoris,  tail  and  perineal  region  by  scrubbing  with 
soap  and  water.  After  washing  thoroughly,  disinfect  the  external 
parts  and  for  a  short  distance  inside  the  vulvar  lips  with  a  1 :  1000 
aqueous  sublimate  solution.  Rinse  away  the  sublimate  solution 
with  a  0.6  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium  bicarbonate,  and  fill  the 
vulvovaginal  canal  with  the  same.  The  operator 's  nails,  hands  and 
arms  must  be  scrupulously  cleansed  and  disinfected,  and  all  instru- 
ments must  be  sterilized.  "Balloon"  the  vagina  by  introducing  a 
tepid  sterile  water  or  salt  solution  into  it.  When  ballooned  prop- 
erly, pass  the  hand  with  a  sheathed  knife  and  push  the  blade  forward 
through  the  vaginal  wall  and  peritoneum,  a  little  above  and  to  one 
side  of  the  os  uteri.  Remove  the  knife,  reintroduce  the  hand,  and 
by  careful  manipulation  push  the  hand  through  the  incision  and 
locate  the  ovaries.  Pass  the  ecraseur  alongside  of  the  arm,  carry 
it  to  an  ovary  and  place  the  chain  over  the  same.  Tighten  tlie  chain 
and  cut  the  ovary  free,  removing  same  with  the  inserted  hand.  Re- 
peat the  same  on  the  other  ovary.  Keep  the  patient  quiet  for  five 
or  si±  days. 

Dangers:  Incision  in  the  vaginal  wall  may  be  carried  into  the 
rectum,  iliac  arteries,  posterior  aorta,  or  uterine  cavity.  The 
incision  may  not  penetrate  the  peritoneum  and  thus  embarrass  the 
operator  by  forming  a  large  cavity  between  the  vaginal  and  peri- 
toneal walls.  Inexperienced  operators  have  removed  a  ball  of  fteces 
in  mistake  for  an  ovary.  By  faulty  technic,  infection  may  be  car- 
ried into  the  peritoneum  and  produce  fatal  peritonitis. 


23S  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  the  operative  methods  of  treating  inversion  of  the  uterus. 

Cleanse  and  suture  any  wounds.  Give  two  ounces  of  chloral 
hydrate.  Elevate  the  posterior  parts  and  attempt  reposition  by  care- 
ful manipulations.  Inject  lukewarm  water  to  smooth  out  the  folds. 
Apply  a  truss  or  suture  the  vulva,  if  necessary.  Keep  the  hind  parts 
elevated  for  a  few  days.  It  is  better  to  prevent  straining  by  reduc- 
ing the  inflammation  than  to  use  sutures,  etc.  If  the  prolapsed 
organ  is  badly  damaged,  amputation  is  the  only  resort. 

Give  the  treatment  of  purulent  mastitis  in  cattle. 

Apply  hot  fomentations  or  poultices.  Drain  abscesses  and  dis- 
infect. Irrigate  the  galactophorous  sinuses  with  a  four  per  cent, 
solution  of  boric  acid.  It  may  be  necessary  to  amputate  one  or 
both  halves  of  the  udder. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  stenosis  of  the  mammary  duct 
in  the  cow. 

Inability  to  obtain  milk  when  the  teat  is  compressed  or  the  milk 
may  escape  in  a  thin  stream  only.  Milking  causes  pain  which  is 
resented  by  the  patient.  A  small  liunp,  "spider,"  may  be  felt  in 
the  teat. 

Treatment:  Pass  teat  sounds  of  gradually  increasing  sizes.  If 
this  fails,  use  a  teat  slitter  (special  instrument)  and  enlarge  the 
duct.  It  may  be  necessary  to  amputate  the  end  of  the  teat  where 
the  obstruction  usually  is  located. 

Diseases  of  the  Spinal  Column  and  Pelvis 

Give  the  symptoms,  prognosis  and  treatment  of  fracture  of  the  tuber- 
osity of  the  ischium. 

Symptoms :  Swelling  of  the  muscles  and  crepitation  in  the  region 
of  buttocks.  Dragging  of  the  toe.  Equal  weight  is  placed  on  each 
foot. 

Prognosis:  Requires  months  to  unite  or  heal  and  sometimes 
results  in  dragging  of  the  toe. 

Treatment :  Rest  for  four  to  six  weeks.  Massage  the  muscles  to 
prevent  atrophy.  It  may  be  necessary  to  make  an  incision  and 
remove  sequestra  of  bone. 

Give  the  diagnosis  of  fracture  through  the  acetabulum  of  the  pelvis. 

Severe  swinging-leg  and  supporting-leg  lameness.  Often  accom- 
panied by  groaning.  Crepitation  when  the  leg  is  moved  or  weight 
is  placed  upon  it.  Sinking  of  the  hip  region.  Examination  per 
rectum  will  locate  the  protruding  head  of  the  femur. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  239 

Give  the  prognosis  and  treatment  of  fracture  of  the  external  angle  of 

the  ilium. 

Prognosis  is  favorable,  although  a  permanent  blemish  results. 

Treatment:  R^st  the  patient  for  3  to  4  weeks,  and  keep  in 

slings  to  prevent  further  injuries  or  displacement  of  the  broken 

pieces  by  lying  down. 

What  is  the  object  of  caudal  myotomy?    Describe  the  operation. 

The  operation  is  performed  for  the  correction  of  curved  tail. 

Confine  the  patient  in  stocks  or  control  with  a  side  line  and 
twitch.  Cleanse  and  disinfect  the  tail,  and  bend  it  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  curvature.  Locate  the  longitudinal  furrow  be- 
tween the  levator  and  depressor  muscles  on  the  convex  side,  and 
insert  a  tenotome  at  the  lower  margin  of  the  levator,  in  the  most 
prominent  part  of  the  curvature.  Push  the  knife  through  the  muscle 
to  the  vertebrse,  turn  the  cutting  edge  upward  against  the  lateral 
muscle  and  sever  it  completely.  Remove  the  knife  and  bandage 
an  antiseptic  pad  over  the  wound,  leaving  the  same  in  place  for 
24  hours. 

Describe  an  operation  for  amputation  of  the  tail.  When  is  this  opera- 
tion indicated? 

This  operation  may  be  performed  by  clipping  the  hair  over 
the  seat  of  operation  and  using  the  docking  shears,  controlling 
hemorrhage  by  searing  the  stump  with  a  red-hot  iron.  The  iron 
also  provides  a  protective  scab. 

A  more  strictly  surgical  procedure  is  to  make  two  semi-elliptical 
flaps  with  the  scalpel,  by  cutting  through  the  skin  and  muscles 
in  an  oblique  direction,  above  and  below  (over  a  joint  if  possible), 
disarticulate  or  chisel  through  the  bone  and  suture  the  flaps  over 
the  end  of  the  stump. 

The  operation  is  indicated  in  malignant  or  incurable  diseases 
of  the  tail. 

Diseases  of  the  Foee  Limb 

Give  the  diagnostic  symptoms  of  shoulder  lameness.  What  treatment 
is  employed  in  shoulder  lameness. 
Suddenly  appearing  lameness  of  a  supporting  and  swinging-leg 
type.  The  leg  is  held  in  abduction  and  little  weight  is  placed  on  it. 
The  forward  stride  is  shortened  and  the  toe  is  dragged.  Inflamma- 
tory swellings  accompanied  by  increased  warmth  and  pain  may 
appear  over  the  shoulder  joint. 

Treatment:  Rest  is  imperative.  In  acute  inflammatory  con- 
ditions,  cold  applications  are  indicated.     Later,   counterirritants 


240  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

are  best.  Subcutaneous  injections  of  Lugol's  solution,  in  several 
points,  over  the  joint  is  a  good  method  of  applying  counterirritation 
and  leaves  no  unsightly  blemish. 

Describe  cold  abscess  of  the  shoulder.     Give  cause  and  treatment. 

A  sharply  defined,  slightly  painful  tumor,  lying  in  or  below 
the  levator  humeri  muscle  as  it  passes  over  the  shoulder- joint.  The 
skin  is  sound  and  moveable  and  the  thick,  hard  wall  of  the  tumor 
may  show  a  point  of  fluctuation  (pus). 

Cause:  Infection  following  bruising  by  an  ill-fitting  collar  on 
a  patient  doing  heavy  draft  work. 

Treatment:  Open  the  abscess,  curette  the  cavity  or  cauterize 
with  a  white-hot  iron.  Dress  the  wound  daily  with  antiseptics. 
If  the  growth  is  extensive,  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  some  or  all 
of  the  new-formed  tissue. 

Give  cause,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  paralysis  of  the  suprascapular 
nerve. 

Cause:  Violent  backward  movements  of  the  shoulder  or  leg, 
causing  overstretching  of  the  nerve.  Bruises  to  the  nerve  by  blows, 
collar,  etc. 

Symptoms:  Scapula  and  humerus  are  jerked  away  from  the 
wall  of  the  thorax  when  weight  is  placed  on  the  affected  leg. 
Atrophy  of  the  paralyzed  muscles  occurs  later.  The  atrophy  is  most 
marked  in  the  infra-  and  supraspinati  and  the  two  teres  muscles. 
It  is  noticeable  by  the  apparent  increased  projection  of  the  scapular 
spine,  and  is  referred  to  by  laymen  as  "sweeney." 

Treatment:  Massage  and  counterirritants  such  as  subcutaneous 
injections  of  Lugol's  solution.  Usually  requires  6  to  8  weeks  and 
often  months  to  effect  a  cure.    Some  cases  never  recover. 

Describe  dislocation  of  the  scapulohumeral  articulation. 

It  is  caused  by  excessive  movement  of  the  joint,  and  appears  as 
a  sudden  lameness  and  difficulty  in  moving  the  joint.  Passive  move- 
ment of  the  joint  is  interfered  with  by  the  swelling  and  tenderness. 
Treatment  should  be  directed  to  immediate  reduction  of  the  luxation. 
Apply  cold  compresses  and  rest  the  patient  as  long  as  lameness 
exists. 

Give  the  etiology  and  the  treatment  of  shoe-boil  (fibrous  growth). 

Etiology :  Bruises  of  the  elbow  in  lying  and  arising.  Pressure 
from  the  shoe  when  recumbent  is  often  cited  as  a  cause,  but  is 
undoubtedly  a  minor  consideration. 

Treatment :  Operative  removal  with  the  patient  under  a  general 
ansesthetic. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  241 

Describe  the  care  and  the  treatment  of  a  shoe-boil  of  (a)  recent  origin, 
(b)  long  standing. 

(a)  Cold  applications  and  astringent  lotions.  If  pus  be  present, 
incise  and  disinfect. 

(b)  There  is  a  fibrous  growth  present  and  it  must  be  surgically 
removed. 

Give  the  symptoms,  prognosis  and  treatment  of  fracture  of  the  ulna. 

Symptoms:  Supporting-leg  lameness;  flexion  of  all  the  joints 
from  the  elbow  downward ;  displacement  of  the  ulna  and  severe  pain 
in  this  region.    Crepitation  may  be  detected. 

Prognosis:  Unfavorable,  best  to  destroy. 

Treatment:  Useless.  Slings  may  be  tried.  Impossible  to 
bandage. 

What  are  the  diagnostic  symptoms  of  complete  radial  paralysis?  Give 
method  of  treatment. 

Symptoms:  Supporting-leg  lameness;  the  shoulder  and  elbow- 
joints  extended,  while  all  the  other  joints  are  flexed.  The  anterior 
wall  of  the  foot  may  be  almost  in  contact  with  the  ground.  Inability 
to  support  weight  on  the  leg.  The  triceps  are  relaxed  and  unable 
to  contract;  later  atrophy  of  these  muscles  appears. 

Treatment:  Nothing  direct  can  be  done.  Massage  the  muscles 
and  rest  the  patient.  Electricity  and  counterirritants  are  of  ques- 
tionable value. 

What  are  the  indications  for  treatment  in  a  case  of  "  broken  knee  '* 
with  synovitis  present  ? 
Very  carefully  cleanse  and  disinfect  the  wound  and  cover  it 
with  an  antiseptic  dressing.  Tie  the  horse  up  or  use  slings  to 
prevent  lying  down.  Suture  the  wound  if  practicable,  otherwise 
leave  open.  Change  the  dressing  daily,  irrigating  the  wound  with 
1-1000  corrosive  sublimate  solution.  Later,  dry  dressings  such  as 
iodoform  and  tannic  acid  are  indicated. 

Describe  the  operation  of  tenotomy  as  employed  in  shortening  of  the 
flexor  tendons. 
Secure  the  animal  in  lateral  recumbency.  Extend  the  affected 
leg  and  apply  an  extension  splint  on  the  under  side,  or  have  an 
assistant  hold  the  leg  in  extreme  extension.  Shave  and  disinfect 
the  skin  over  the  tendon  of  the  flexor  pedis  muscle  in  the  middle 
of  the  cannon  bone  on  the  inner  side.  Insert  a  sharp-pointed  teno- 
tome, with  the  cutting  edge  toward  the  foot,  through  the  skin  and 
underlying  tissues  on  the  anterior  border  of  the  flexor  pedis  tendon. 
Push  the  tenotome  through  until  the  point  is  felt  beneath  the 
16 


242  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

skin  on  the  opposite  side.  Turn  the  cutting  edge  against  the  tendon, 
Nvhieh  is  rendered  tense  by  an  assistant,  and  cut  through  it.  When 
completely  severed,  resistance  to  extension  ceases.  Remove  the 
Jfliif  e  and  bandage  the  wound.  Healing  should  occur  by  first  inten- 
tion if  careful  antisepsis  is  observed.  Keep  the  animal  standing 
and  exercise  moderately  for  the  first  few  days  following  operation. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  inflammation  o£  the  flexor 
tendons. 

Causes:  Strains  from  slipping,  improper  shoeing  (low  heels  and 
long  toes),  heavy  pulling,  jumping,  continued  standing  in  thoracic 
diseases  or  lameness  in  the  opposite  leg. 

Symptoms :  Supporting-leg  lameness.  The  foot  is  extended  for- 
ward or  held  with  the  heels  raised.  Shortening  of  the  last  phase  of 
movement  is  noted.  Local  pain,  swelling  and  warmth.  In  later 
stages,  there  may  be  shortening  of  the  tendons  and  continuous  volar 
flexion  together  with  uprightness  of  the  hoof.  Weight  is  now  placed 
on  the  leg.  In  shortening  of  the  flexor  pedis  perf  oratus,  the  obliquity 
of  the  pastern  joint  only  is  affected,  the  hoof  remaining  in  a  normal 
position. 

Treatment :  Rest  and  cold  applications  for  the  first  day  or  two. 
Then,  moist  warmth,  massage  and  infrictions  with  mild  blistering 
agents  are  used.  Old  thickenings  are  best  treated  by  firing.  Shoe 
with  a  low  toe-calk  and  elevated  heel-calks.  In  chronic  eases  accom- 
panied by  shortening,  tenotomy  offers  the  only  relief.  See  preced- 
ing question. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms,  prognosis  and  treatment  of  sprain  of  the 
inferior  suspensory  ligament. 

Causes  and  symptoms  are  about  the  same  as  in  tendinitis  as  de- 
scribed in  preceding  answer.  Lameness  is  not  so  marked.  Tender- 
ness is  detected  by  pressing  in  deep  close  to  the  bone  and  anterior 
to  the  tendons  with  the  foot  raised.  Chronic  cases,  accompanied 
by  shortening,  affect  only  the  obliquity  of  the  pastern,  the  hoof 
remains  in  a  normal  position. 

Prognosis:  Favorable. 

Treatment:  Same  as  for  inflamed  tendons.  Raising  the  heels, 
however,  does  no  good  in  this  case  and  cutting  of  the  ligament  is  not 
generally  employed. 

What  is  the  etiology  of  splint? 

Splints  are  due  to  a  periostitis  which  develops  between  the  large 
and  the  inner  small  metacarpal  bones.  Rarely,  between  the  large 
and  outer  bone.    This  periostitis  is  due  to  traumatic  irritation  of 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  243 

the  interosseous  ligament,  periosteum  and  bones.  The  irritation 
may  be  from  blows  as  interfering,  or  from  unequal  distribution 
of  pressure  in  the  knee  which  throws  an  excessive  load  on  the  inner 
small  metacarpus  and  ruptures  the  interosseous  ligament. 

Symptoms:  In  early  stages,  lameness  is  seen  which  is  more 
marked  at  the  trot.  If  high,  affecting  the  carpus,  the  leg  is  held  in 
abduction  and  extreme  lameness  is  shown.  Slight  swelling,  increased 
heat  and  pain  on  pressure  can  be  readily  detected.  When  the  in- 
flammation subsides,  an  exostosis  remains  as  a  blemish. 

Treatment:  Eest  is  important  and  in  most  eases  is  the  only 
treatment  needed.  If  due  to  striking,  correct  this  fault  by  proper 
shoeing.  In  young  horses,  splint  lameness  often  disappears  spon- 
taneously. Mild  blisters  and  the  firing  iron  may  be  used  in  severe 
cases.  The  exostosis  called  the  "splint, "  if  unaccompanied  by  lame- 
ness, should  not  be  interfered  with  unless,  by  reason  of  its  size,  it  is 
struck  by  the  opposite  foot,  then  its  removal  may  be  attempted  by 
chiselling  it  off. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  fracture  of  the  metacarpus. 

Symptoms:  Displacement  and  abnormal  mobility  of  the  parts. 
Inability  to  place  weight  on  the  leg  and  crepitation  may  be  noted. 

Treatment :  Place  patient  in  slings.  Replace  the  parts  in  proper 
position  and  apply  a  plaster-of-Paris  bandage.  Leave  the  plaster 
cast  in  place  for  six  weeks.  Some  advocate  turning  the  horse  in 
pasture  after  the  cast  hardens,  but  quietude  is  better. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  fracture  of  the  os  suffraginis. 

Symptoms:  Sudden  lameness  with  volar  flexion  of  the  fetlock. 
Passive  rotation  of  the  foot  produces  crepitation  in  a  complete  frac- 
ture. In  case  of  fissure,  a  line  of  tenderness  may  be  detected  on 
palpation,  but  no  crepitation. 

Treatment:  Place  patient  in  slings.  Replace  the  parts  in  pro- 
per position  and  fix  firmly  with  a  plaster-of-Paris  bandage.  After 
the  cast  hardens,  it  may  be  advisable  to  provide  a  soft  bed  and  allow 
the  patient  to  lie  down,  thus  preventing  laminitis  or  other  lameness 
in  the  sound  foot  by  reason  of  its  bearing  additional  weight. 

Define  ring-bone.  Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  the  same. 
Ring-bone  is  a  collective  term  for  various  chronic  aseptic  inflam- 
matory processes  at  the  coronary  joint,  attended  with  swelling. 
According  to  location,  we  distinguish  two  forms,  viz.,  articular,  in- 
volving the  joint,  and  periarticular,  in  which  the  joint  is  not 
affected. 


244  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Symptoms:  Chronic  enlargement  around  the  coronet  joint. 
Lameness  in  which  the  latter  phase  of  the  stride  is  shortened. 
In  the  articular  form,  lameness  is  seen  when  the  patient  is  turned 
in  short  circles  toward  the  diseased  side.  Tenderness  of  the  swell- 
ing is  usually  present.  The  phalanges  show  volar  flexion,  that  is,  the 
fetlock  is  upright. 

Treatment:  Shoe  with  raised  heels  and  shorten  the  toe,  that 
is,  prepare  and  shoe  the  foot  so  that  the  pastern  lies  parallel  with 
the  walls  of  the  hoof.  Point  firing  and  blisters  are  beneficial  if  the 
animal  is  rested  four  to  six  weeks.  This  failing  to  remove  the  lame- 
ness, neurectomy  is  the  last  resort,  but  is  of  value  only  when 
anchylosis  has  not  occurred.  In  the  latter  condition,  the  lameness 
is  mechanical  and  may  be  relieved  by  the  use  of  a  rolling-motion 
shoe. 

Describe  neurectomy  of  the  median  nerve. 

This  operation  may  be  performed  under  local  or  general  anfBS- 
thesia.  The  point  of  operation  is  opposite  the  lower  portion  of 
the  elbow-joint,  immediately  behind  the  upper  extremity  of  the 
radius,  toward  the  upper  point  in  the  depression  between  the  radius 
and  the  internal  flexor  muscle  of  the  metacarpus.  The  nerve  can 
be  exactly  located  by  palpation.  Shave  and  disinfect  the  skin  and 
make  an  incision  5  cm.  long,  parallel  to  and  directly  over  the  nerve, 
through  the  skin  and  sterno-aponeuroticus  muscle,  exposing  the  anti- 
brachial  fascia.  Divide  the  fascia  and,  if  necessary,  remove  a  small 
elliptical  piece  of  the  same.  Pass  an  aneurism  needle  under  the 
nerve  and  separate  it  from  the  neighboring  tissues.  Excise  a  sec- 
tion of  the  nerve  3  cm.  long.  Disinfect  the  wound  and  suture. 
(Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  injuring  the  brachial  vein,  as  hemor- 
rhage from  same  would  be  very  annoying.) 

Mention  the  diseases  in  which  median  neurectomy  would  be  indicated. 
Navicular  disease,  ring-bone,  side-bones,  chronic  sesamoiditis, 
splints,  chronic  carpitis.  In  the  latter  three,  ulnar  neurectomy 
ought  also  to  be  performed.  In  chronic  synovitis  (articular  and  ten- 
dinous) with  permanent  lameness,  median  neurectomy  may  be 
performed. 

Describe  the  operation  of  high  plantar  neurectomy. 

Operate  on  the  standing  animal,  using  local  anresthesia.  The 
point  of  operation  is  just  above  the  fetlock  in  the  lower  third  of  the 
metacarpus,  and  just  in  front  of  the  flexor  pedis  tendon.  The  exact 
point  is  determined  by  feeling  the  nerve  glide  beneath  the  fingers. 
Shave  and  disinfect  a  small  area.    Make  an  incision  3  to  5  cm.  long. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  245 

parallel  to  and  directly  over  the  nerve,  cutting  through  the  skin 
and  connective  tissue,  exposing  the  nerve.  Separate  the  nerve  from 
the  adjacent  tissues  and  excise  a  section  3  to  5  cm.  long.  Suture 
the  wound  and  cover  with  bandage.  Healing  should  occur  by  first 
intention.    Repeat  the  operation  on  the  opposite  side. 

Name  three  diseases  for  the  relief  of  which  plantar  neurectomy  is 
indicated. 
Navicular  disease,  ring-bone  and  side-bone. 

Describe  the  relations  of  the  artery,  vein,  nerve  and  tendon  in  the 
region  of  the  ergot  at  the  seat  of  plantar  neurectomy. 
From  before  baclnvard,  vein,  artery,  nerve  and  tendon.      The 
nerve  lies  close  to  the  external  margin  of  the  tendon. 

State  your  opinion  regarding  the  use  of  the  actual  cautery  in  the  relief 
of  equine  lameness. 
The  direct  results  which  are  attributed  to  the  use  of  the  actual 
cautery,  e.g.,  strengthening  tendons  by  the  formation  of  cica- 
tricial tissue,  etc.,  are  considerably  overrated.  The  benefits  are 
usually  derived,  indirectly,  from  the  enforced  rest  following  its  use. 
Nevertheless,  the  actual  cautery  is  a  very  valuable  therapeutic  agent. 
Puncture-firing  augments  local  nutritive  activity,  converting  chronic 
into  acute  processes  and  thus  hastens  their  termination.  Firing 
operations  necessitate  protracted  rest  and  cause  more  or  less  im- 
mobility of  the  defective  organs,  both  of  which  are  of  great  benefit 
in  bringing  about  a  cure. 

Diseases  op  the  Hind  Limb 

Name  the  various  conditions  listed  under  the  category  of  "  hip  lame- 
ness." Give  the  diagnostic  symptoms  and  the  treatment 
of  hip  lameness. 

1,  coxitis;  2,  rupture  of  the  ligamentum  teres;  3,  disease  of  the 
lumbar  vertebrge,  pelvic  bones  and  femur ;  4,  disease  of  the  muscles 
of  the  hip  region ;  5,  disease  of  the  tendon  and  tendon  bursa  of  the 
gluteus  medius  muscle  (trochanteric  lameness)  ;  6,  inflammation  in 
the  structures  surrounding  the  hip-joint ;  7,  lameness  due  to  fracture 
or  other  disease  of  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium  is  often  erroneously 
referred  to  as  hip  lameness. 

Symptoms:  Swinging-leg  lameness;  difficulty  in  advancing  the 
limb ;  dragging  of  the  toe.  In  coxitis,  there  is  supporting-leg  lame- 
ness, not  so  in  the  muscular  forms.  Lameness  is  marked  in  turning 
or  backing.    Muscular  atrophy  is  noted  in  cases  of  long  duration. 


246  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Hip  lameness  is  best  diagnosed  by  a  process  of  exclusion  and  is 
very  difficult  at  times. 

Treatment:  Rest  is  necessary.  Apply  counterirritants  such  as 
subcutaneous  or  intramuscular  injections  of  dilute  Lugol's  solution. 
Setons,  blisters  and  the  firing  iron  are  used. 

Give  the  diagnosis  and  prognosis  of  fracture  of  the  femur. 

Diagnosed  by  the  presence  of  severe  pain,  leg  abducted  when 
advanced.  Supporting-leg  lameness;  crepitation.  Fracture  of  the 
trochanter  is  marked  by  swelling  and  pronounced  swinging-leg  lame- 
ness, shortening  of  the  forward  stride  and  abduction  of  the  limb. 
Weight  may  be  placed  on  the  leg.  Fractures  into  the  stifle-joint  may 
show  symptoms  of  gonitis. 

Prognosis :  Very  unfavorable.  Best  to  destroy.  Fracture  of  the 
trochanter  is  least  dangerous. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  stifle  lameness. 

The  term  "stifle  lameness"  is  a  collective  one.  The  following 
conditions  are  included  under  this  caption:  1,  acute  and  chronic 
gonitis ;  2,  strains  of  the  patellar  ligaments ;  3,  bursitis  prepatellaris ; 
4,  luxations  and  fractures  of  the  patella.  The  term  is  usually 
referred  to  the  first  named. 

Symptoms :  Gradually  increasing  lameness ;  limb  held  in  a  flexed 
position,  or,  if  both  limbs  are  affected,  they  are  rested  alternately. 
In  moving,  the  limb  is  carried  stiffly,  the  toe  dragging  or  hitting 
slight  prominences.  In  acute  conditions,  a  diffuse  swelling  is  seen 
and  tenderness  is  very  marked.  Chronic  cases  show  a  distention  of 
the  joint  capsule  below  the  patella. 

Treatment:  Acute  conditions  call  for  cold  irrigation  and  com- 
presses. Later,  a  blister  may  be  of  benefit.  Chronic  cases  are 
usually  incurable,  although  blisters  and  the  firing  iron  may  be  tried. 

Describe  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  displacement  of  the 
patella. 
Symptoms:  Momentary  upward  (habitual)  luxation  may  be 
overlooked,  or  the  patella  may  remain  fast  for  a  moment  and  then 
suddenly  descend  with  each  step,  showing  a  slight  check  to  move- 
ment, similar  to  that  seen  in  string-halt.  In  stationary  upward 
luxation,  the  limb  is  stiffly  extended  backward  and  cannot  be 
advanced.  Inability  to  flex  the  limb,  and  the  patella  is  fixed  on 
the  upper  portion  of  the  internal  lip  of  the  trochlea.  Outward 
luxation  is  shown  by  inability  to  boar  weight  on  the  limb,  due 
to  the  loss  of  function  of  the  rectus  and  vasti  muscles.  The  limb  can 
be  advanced  but  the  stride  is  shortened  and  lameness  is  shown  when 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  247 

weight  is  placed  on  the  limb ;  excessive  flexion  of  all  the  joints  of  the 
limb  occurs. 

Treatment:  Immediate  reduction  of  the  luxation,  using  great 
force  if  necessary,  should  be  effected.  In  upward  displacement, 
drawing  the  leg  forward  with  a  rope  attached  to  the  fetlock  region, 
or  starting  the  animal  suddenly  with  a  whip,  will  often  bring  about 
reduction.  Keep  the  patient  very  quiet  in  slings.  A  blister  applied 
over  the  stifle  will  help  in  keeping  the  limb  at  rest.  If  due  to  general 
weakness  and  relaxation  of  the  ligaments  from  disease,  attempt 
building  up  the  general  health.  Momentary  luxation  is  said  to 
have  been  cured  by  dividing  the  inner  straight  ligament 
(desmotomy). 

Describe  briefly  patellar  desmotomy  (ligament  section). 

The  object  of  this  operation  is  for  the  relief  of  habitual  luxation 
of  the  patella,  or  patellar  string-halt,  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  The 
operation  has  been  but  little  tried  in  this  country  or  elsewhere, 
and  its  value  is  still  sub  judice. 

Secure  the  patient  in  lateral  recumbency  with  the  affected  leg 
beneath  and  extended.  General  anaesthesia  should  be  employed. 
Locate  the  internal  ligament,  running  from  the  patella  obliquely  to 
the  supero-internal  part  of  the  tibia.  Shave  and  disinfect  a  suffi- 
cient area.  Make  an  incision,  2  inches  long,  through  the  skin, 
parallel  to  and  directly  over  the  middle  third  of  the  ligament, 
exposing  the  fascia.  Cut  through  the  fascia,  insert  a  blunt-pointed 
bistoury  beneath  the  ligament  from  behind  forward  and  sever  the 
ligament.    Suture  the  skin  wound  and  cover  with  collodion. 

Give  the  symptoms  of  ruptured  flexor  metatarsi  tendon. 

Lameness  when  the  limb  is  carried  forward;  the  stifle  is  flexed 
but  the  hock  is  excessively  extended.  The  symptoms  resemble  those 
of  a  broken  bone  but  the  absence  of  fracture  is  shown  by  the  ability 
to  support  weight  on  the  limb.  The  symptoms  are  more  apparent 
during  movement.  Swelling  and  pain  may  be  present  over  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  tibia. 

Describe  cunean  tenotomy.     What  is  the  object  of  this  operation? 

Operate  on  the  standing  animal,  using  local  anesthesia  and  a 
sideline  on  the  opposite  leg.  Locate  the  cunean  tendon  by  palpation 
as  it  passes  obliquely  downward  and  backward  over  the  inferior 
median  surface  of  the  hock.  Shave  and  disinfect  an  area,  5  to  6  cm. 
square.  At  a  point  about  1  cm.  below  the  inferior  border  of  the 
tendon,  midway  between  the  anterior  and  posterior  borders  of  the 
hock,  insert  a  narrow-bladed  scalpel,  flatwise,  through  the  sMn  and 


248  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

upward  between  the  skin  and  tendon,-  to  the  superior  border  of  the 
latter.  Turn  the  cutting  edge  against  the  tendon  and  by  firm 
pressure  cut  through  the  same.  A  well-marked  depression  between 
the  cut  ends  can  be  detected  when  the  operation  is  complete.  Dis- 
infect the  wound  and  apply  an  antiseptic  bandage.  Healing  by  first 
intention  should  follow. 

Object :  Relief  of  spavin  lameness  and  as  an  adjunct  to  peroneal 
tenotomy  for  string-halt. 

State  the  object  o£  peroneal  tenotomy.     Describe  the  operation. 

Object :  For  the  relief  of  string-halt. 

Shave  and  disinfect  a  small  area  just  below  the  hock  on  the 
outer  side,  where  the  peroneal  tendon  is  almost  subcutaneous,  and 
about  6  cm.  above  its  point  of  union  with  the  tendon  of  the  extensor 
pedis  longus  muscle.  Hold  up  the  opposite  hind  limb  with  a  side- 
line and  apply  a  twitch  to  the  nose.  Stretch  the  skin  tightly,  insert 
the  tenotome  through  the  skin  and  underlying  fascia,  push  it  under 
the  tendon,  turn  the  cutting  edge  against  the  same  and  sever  it  as 
well  as  the  fascia  through  to  the  skin.  An  antiseptic  bandage  should 
be  applied  and  left  in  position  for  eight  days.  The  cutaneous 
wound  should  heal  by  first  intention.  A  rest  of  one  to  two  weeks 
is  usually  demanded,  although  some  operators  claim  the  best  results 
to  follow  immediate  exercise. 

Mention  the  various  forms  of  spavin  and  give  the  treatment  of  each. 

1.  Arthritis  chronica  deformans  tarsi   (bone  spavin). 
Produce  anchylosis  of  the  joint  by  prolonged  rest  for  six  weeks 

or  longer,  in  connection  with  deep  point  firing  and  blistering, 
Cunean  tenotomy,  as  described  in  preceding  answer,  is  used  by 
some,  periosteotomy  by  others.  Whichever  method  is  used,  the 
benefits  which  follow  are  due  to  the  anchylosis  brought  about  princi- 
pally through  the  enforced  rest.  As  a  last  resort,  anterior  and 
posterior  tibial  neurectomy  may  be  employed.  Shoe  with  raised 
heels  and  shortened  toe. 

2.  Bog-spavin  (excessive  distention  of  the  capsule  of  the  true 
hock  joint,  due  to  chronic  synovitis). 

Recent  cases  are  treated  by  cold  applications  and  later  by  blister- 
ing. Massage  and  repeated  painting  with  tincture  of  iodine  may 
diminish  the  swelling.  Extensive  swelling  may  be  reduced  by  the 
actual  cautery.  This  condition  seldom  causes  lameness  and  is  best 
left  alone. 

3.  "Blood-spavin,"  formerly  classified  as  a  variety  of  spavin,  is 
no  longer  recognized  as  such.    It  is  simply  a  distention  of  the  saphena 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  249 

vein  as  it  courses  over  the  hock.  Lameness  accompanying  its  pres- 
ence is  usually  due  to  an  underlying  true  spavin  (arthritis  chronica 
deformans  tarsi)  and  should  be  treated  accordingly. 

Give  the  pathology  of  thorough-pin. 

Generally  due  to  chronic  synovitis  brought  on  by  severe  exertion. 
It  may  follow  an  acute  synovitis,  and  consists  of  a  distention  of  the 
capsule  of  the  tendon  in  the  upper  posterior  part  of  the  hock-joint. 
Occasionally  this  sheath  of  the  flexor  pedis  tendon  communicates 
with  the  capsule  of  the  true  hock-joint  and  hence  we  may  see 
bog-spavin  and  thorough-pin  coexisting.  Thorough-pin  is  seldom 
accompanied  by  acute  inflammation  and  hence  lameness  is  rare. 

Define  curb.     Give  treatment  for  curb. 

Curb  is  a  thickening  of  the  metatarsocaleanean  ligament,  result- 
ing from  inflammation.  The  term  curb  is  often  applied  to  any 
swelling  which  causes  a  deviation  from  the  normal  straight  line 
from  the  tuber  calcanei  to  the  fetlock. 

Treatment :  Acute  inflammation  calls  for  antiphlogistic  measures 
such  as  cold  irrigation,  Burrow's  lotion,  etc.  Later,  blistering,  or 
line  firing  and  blistering  with  rest,  is  indicated. 

Define  "  capped  hock  "  and  give  causes  and  treatment  of  same. 

Capped  hock  refers  to  any  swelling  on  the  point  of  the  os  calcis. 
It  may  be  due  to  inflammatory  swellings  or  thickenings  in  the  skin 
and  subcutis,  gravitation  of  swellings  originating  above,  hydrops 
of  the  subcutaneous  bursa  of  the  flexor  pedis  perforatus  tendon,  or 
swelling  of  this  tendon. 

Causes:  Kicks,  violent  exertion,  slipping  and  external  injuries 
from  various  sources. 

Treatment:  Acute  inflammatory  conditions  demand  cold  appli- 
cations. Later,  absorbing  applications,  such  as  tincture  of  iodine 
or  mercuric  blisters.  Extensive  swellings  may  require  antiseptic 
puncturing  with  a  hollow  needle  and  the  application  of  a  pressure 
bandage.  Wounds  require  the  usual  antiseptic  treatment.  In 
swellings  of  the  skin,  massage  is  beneficial. 

Describe  anterior  tibial  neurectomy. 

Operate  on  the  standing  animal  with  local  anaesthesia  but  it  is 
better  to  use  general  aneesthesia  with  the  animal  cast  and  confined. 
Locate  the  furrow  between  the  extensor  pedis  and  the  peroneus 
muscles.  Shave  and  disinfect  an  area,  6  cm.  long  by  3  cm.  wide, 
directly  over  this  furrow  and  extending  upward  from  a  point  6  or  7 
cm.  above  the  tibio-astragaloid  articulation.    At  a  point  8  to  10  cm. 


250  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

above  the  flexure  of  the  hock,  opposite  the  external  margin  of  the 
extensor  pedis  muscle,  make  an  incision,  5  to  6  cm.  long,  through 
the  skin  and  underlying  aponeurosis.  Separate  this  muscle,  first 
from  the  tendinous,  then  from  the  muscular  portion  of  the  flexor 
metatarsi,  on  the  anterior  side  of  the  margin  of  which  the  anterior 
tibial  nerve  is  seen.  Pass  an  aneurism  needle  underneath  it  and 
remove  a  piece,  3  to  4  cm.  long.  Close  the  cutaneous  wound  with 
interrupted  sutures  and  apply  a  collodion  dressing. 

Describe  posterior  tibial  neurectomy. 

Operate  on  the  standing  animal  with  local  anossthesia,  side-line 
and  twitch.  Operating  table  with  general  anaesthesia  is  better. 
Shave  and  disinfect  an  area,  10  cm.  above  the  top  of  the  os  calcis 
and  2  cm.  in  front  of  the  tendon  Achilles,  on  the  median  side.  Make 
an  incision  about  5  cm.  long  parallel  to  the  above-mentioned  ten- 
don, through  the  skin.  Ascertain,  by  palpation,  the  exact  location 
of  the  nerve  and  cut  through  the  fascia  over  it,  exposing  the  nerve. 
Separate  it  from  the  surrounding  tissues  and  remove  a  piece,  3  cm. 
long.  Suture  the  cutaneous  wound  and  apply  an  antiseptic  bandage. 
Healing  by  flrst  intention  should  follow. 

Diseases  of  the  Foot 

Mention  ten  diseases  of  the  foot  and  specify  those  met  with  most  fre- 
quently. 
Ring-bone,  side-bone,  navicular  disease,  laminitis,  pododermatitis 
(including  corns),  and  quittor  are  more  frequently  met  with.    Less 
commonly,  we  see  keraphyllocele,  contracted  sole,  quarter  crack 
and  canker. 

What  are  the  symptoms  of  fracture  of  the  navicular  bone  ?  Give  prog- 
nosis and  treatment. 

Symptoms :  Foot  continually  rested  and  held  in  excessive  volar 
flexion.  Extreme  pain  is  shown  when  the  coronet  joint  is  passively 
extended.  Later,  an  inflammatory  swelling  occurs  in  the  hollow  of 
the  heel. 

Prognosis:  Unfavorable.  Chronic  lameness  is  very  likely  to 
follow. 

Treatment :  Complete  rest  is  essential.  Apply  cold  compresses. 
Resection  of  the  flexor  pedis  perforans  and  removal  of  the  os  navi- 
culare  may  be  attempted.  As  this  operation  is  occasionally  per- 
formed in  case  of  penetrating  street-nail,  it  would  seem  permissible 
in  this  condition. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  251 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  fracture  of  the  os  corona. 

Symptoms :  Sudden  severe  lameness ;  volar  flexion  of  the  fetlock 
joint  and  crepitation  in  the  affected  region  will  make  the  diagnosis 
easy.    Fissures  are  harder  to  detect  and  require  careful  examination. 

Treatment:  Complete  fixation  in  a  plaster  cast  for  six  weeks. 
Lameness  following  may  be  removed  by  median  neurectomy.  Usually 
unfavorable. 

Give  the  pathology  and  the  treatment  of  side-bones. 

Side-bone  is  a  condition  in  which  the  lateral  cartilages  of  the 
foot  are  partially  or  entirely  ossified.  The  causes  are  excessive 
concussion  by  work  on  hard  roads,  shoes  with  high  heel-calks  which 
prevent  the  normal  frog-pressure,  and  traumatisms.  There  is  a 
congenital  predisposition  in  heavy  coarse-bred  horses,  a  large  per- 
centage of  which  are  affected. 

Treatment :  Rest  the  horse,  remove  shoes  and  place  the  patient  in 
a  peat-moss  or  other  soft  bed.  Thin  the  wall  over  the  affected 
cartilage  and  apply  wet  swabs  to  soften  the  horn.  A  special  shoe 
is  necessary  when  the  outer  cartilage  is  ossified  and  the  correspond- 
ing quarter  is  contracted.  After  the  lameness  lessens,  or  disap- 
pears, prepare  the  foot  for  the  shoe  by  lowering  the  outer  wall  more 
than  the  inner.  The  shoe  should  be  flat,  the  outer  branch  broad  and 
well  set  out,  the  inner  branch  closely  fitted,  thus  giving  a  wider 
supporting  surface  on  the  outside.  If  both  cartilages  are  affected, 
a  plain  open  shoe  with  high  calks  is  best.  The  bar-shoe  is  contra- 
indicated,  as  frog-pressure  is  undesirable  in  this  condition.  As 
a  last  resort,  perform  neurectomy  to  remove  lameness. 

Mention    the    varieties    of    ring-bone    and    give    treatment    of    each 
variety. 

1.  Articular:  Lameness  can  only  be  removed  by  performing 
neurectomy,  and  then  only  in  case  anchylosis  has  not  occurred. 

2.  Peri-articular:  Level  the  foot  and  apply  a  level  shoe  or 
one  with  the  heels  raised  slightly  and  the  toe  shortened.  Rest 
for  six  weeks  may  be  enforced  by,  and  benefit  derived  from  point- 
firing  and  blistering.  These  measures  failing,  neurectomy  is  the 
only  resort. 

3.  Traumatic  and  rachitic  forms  are  sometimes  noted.  These 
seldom  cause  severe  lameness.  Treat  with  cold  applications  or 
blisters. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  quittor. 

S>Tnptoms :  The  first  sjinptom  is  a  diffuse  swelling  in  the  region 
of  the  coronet  and  bulb  of  the  heel.    Later,  abscess  formation  occurs 


252  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

with  a  discharge  of  pus.  This  may  cease  and  a  new  abscess  form 
in  a  different  place,  and  so  on  until  the  whole  cartilage  is  more  or  less 
necrotic.  Lameness  is  usually  slight  unless  the  pedal  joint  is 
invaded.  In  long-standing  cases,  the  wall  is  thrust  outward  and 
ringed. 

Treatment:  In  the  early  stages,  when  the  pain  is  slight  and 
the  patient  is  able  to  work,  antiseptic  injections  may  be  tried. 
Caustic  agents  such  as  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  zinc  chloride  or 
silver  nitrate,  and  corrosive  sublimate  may  benefit.  Formalin  in  a 
10  per  cent,  solution  may  cause  the  discharge  to  cease.  Operative 
removal  of  the  affected  cartilage  is  usually  necessary  and  is  best 
performed  early. 

Give  in  detail  Bayer's  operation  for  quittor. 

Shave  the  hair  from  the  coronary  region  up  to  the  fetlock.  Scrub 
the  parts  with  brush  and  soap.  Apply  an  antiseptic  pack  and  leave 
for  24  hours.  Use  general  anfEsthesia.  Apply  a  tourniquet  above 
the  fetlock.  Remove  a  crescent-shaped  piece  of  horn  from  the  area 
over  the  cartilage.  Make  a  corresponding  incision  through  the  sensi- 
tive structures,  about  14  iiich  within  the  incision  through  the  horn ; 
the  ends  of  the  incision  are  prolonged  upward,  dividing  the  coronary 
band,  etc.,  as  high  as  the  upper  margin  of  the  lateral  cartilage.  The 
flap,  thus  outlined,  is  dissected  away  from  the  underlying  cartilage, 
and  the  latter  is  then  removed,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  depending 
upon  the  extent  of  the  disease.  Freely  curette  away  all  necrotic 
tissue.  Disinfect  the  wound  and  dust  freely  with  iodoform.  Suture 
the  flap,  cover  the  surface  with  an  antiseptic  pack  and  bandage. 
Leave  this  dressing  in  position  for  ten  or  twelve  days  if  no  great 
pain  is  shown  and  no  bad  odor  or  discharge  is  given  off. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  chronic  navicular  disease. 

Symptoms:  Supporting  and  swinging-leg  lameness.  Lameness 
is  increased  by  exercise,  decreased  by  rest.  Volar  flexion  of  the 
phalanges  and  extension  of  the  foot.  Tenderness  to  pressure  over 
the  navicular  bone  and  to  forcible  dorsal  flexion.  The  use  of 
cocaine  will  aid  in  the  diagnosis.  When  both  feet  are  affected,  the 
last  phase  of  movement  is  shortened  and  the  limbs  are  carried  stiffly 
and  rapidly  forward.  Sometimes  the  lameness  disappears  after 
exercise  but  more  often  it  is  aggravated.  A  decrease  in  lameness 
follows  a  long  rest.  Muscular  contraction  and  hoof  contraction 
follow  disuse. 

Treatment :  In  recent  cases,  a  long  rest  in  a  box  with  peat  moss, 
tan-bark  or  soft  clay,  together  with  the  application  of  wet  swabs 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  253 

on  the  feet,  may  assist  repair.  Shortening  of  the  toe  and  raising  of 
the  heels  of  the  shoe  will  often  relieve  lameness  to  such  an  extent 
that  light  work  can  be  performed.  In  most  cases,  neurectomy  is  the 
only  measure  that  will  render  the  horse  serviceable. 

Describe  pumiced  sole  of  the  foot,  giving  cause,  prognosis  and  treat- 
ment. 

Pumiced  sole  is  that  condition  in  which  the  horny  sole  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  toe  readily  crumbles  away  and  leaves  the 
sensitive  tissues  more  or  less  exposed. 

Cause :  Seen  as  a  complication  of  laminitis.  May  follow  punc- 
tured wounds  of  the  foot  or  bruises  of  the  sole  where  exudation  from 
the  secreting  membrane  occurs. 

Prognosis:  Favorable  if  due  to  wounds  or  bruises  with  simple 
exudation  and  separation  of  the  tissues.  If  due  to  laminitis  with 
dropping  of  the  sole,  an  incurable  lameness  results. 

Treatment :  Provide  drainage  and  apply  antiseptic  dressings  to 
wounds  and  bruises.  Chronic  laminitis  calls  for  special  shoeing. 
A  wall-bearing  shoe  with  thin  heels  and  thick  toes  and  a  protective 
dressing  over  the  exposed  parts  are  indicated. 

What  is  seedy-toe?     Give  treatment  of  seedy-toe. 

Seedy-toe  is  characterized  by  the  separation  of  the  horny  wall 
from  the  sensitive  lamin£e  at  the  toe  and  an  accumulation  of  imper- 
fect horn  or  horn  debris  in  the  space  formed.  It  follows  an  injury 
which  destroys  the  sensitive  laminge.  The  modified  horn  is  produced 
by  the  imperfectly  regenerated  secreting  structures.  Also  seen  as 
a  complication  of  laminitis. 

Treatment:  Rasp  away  the  wall  over  the  affected  area  and  re- 
move all  imperfect  horn  tissue.  Apply  antiseptic  packs  and  later 
use  a  tar  dressing.  A  special  shoe  to  protect  the  exposed  toe  may 
be  necessary. 

Give  the  pathology  and  the  treatment  of  corns. 

A  corn  is  the  result  of  an  injury  to  the  pododerm  in  the  angle 
between  the  quarter  and  the  bar.  The  laminge  of  the  bar  and  quar- 
ters and  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  may  be  involved.  The  primary 
injury  causes  hemorrhage  between  the  pododerm  and  horn.  Unless 
infection  enters,  the  only  lesions  produced  are  the  blood-stained  horn 
tubules  which  are  exposed  by  paring  away  of  the  horn.  This  con- 
dition is  called  dry  corn.  Should  infection  enter,  a  suppurating 
condition  is  produced  and  the  pus  may  work  its  way  upward  and 
break  out  between  the  wall  and  the  coronary  band,  causing  severe 
lameness   (suppurating  corn). 


254  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

In  chronic  corns,  the  horn  is  permanently  altered,  being  either 
soft  and  moist  or  dry  and  crumbled.  The  inner  surface  of  the  horn 
is  covered  with  horny  swellings  or  nodules  and  the  patient  presents 
well-marked  lameness. 

Corns  are  caused  by  overparing  and  thus  weakening  the  horn ; 
by  contracted  heels,  by  improper  balancing,  and  shoeing  of  the  foot ; 
by  neglecting  shoeing ;  by  lack  of  moisture ;  by  direct  traumatisms 
as  from  stones,  bruises,  etc.  Ossification  of  the  lateral  cartilages 
lessens  the  elasticity  and  thus  increases  the  effect  of  concussion  when 
the  foot  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  ground.  Hence  corns  and 
side-bones  are  often  associated  in  the  same  foot. 

Treatment:  Remove  the  cause;  shorten  the  toe,  lower  the  quar- 
ters and  remove  all  dead  horn.  Avoid  too  much  paring  and  expos- 
ing of  the  sensitive  laminae.  Apply  a  bar-shoe  with  leather  sole 
and  pack  the  foot  with  tarred  oakum.  If  side-bones  are  present, 
and  a  bar-shoe  is  not  advisable,  a  three-quarter  shoe  may  be  used 
until  the  parts  are  normally  restored.  Suppurating  corns  should 
be  freely  drained  and  disinfected  until  the  part  is  covered  with 
horn,  when  a  tar  dressing  and  bar-shoe  may  be  applied. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  thrush. 

Causes:  Standing  in  filth  (soiled  bedding,  urine,  faeces,  etc.), 
excessive  paring  of  the  frog,  lack  of  frog-pressure,  and  hard  work 
on  stony  ground  are  exciting  causes  of  thrush.  Among  the  predis- 
posing causes  are :  navicular  disease,  contracted  heels  and  scratches. 

Symptoms :  Increased  moisture  of  the  frog,  an  ill-smelling,  dark- 
colored  discharge  which  may  entirely  loosen  the  frog.  Lameness 
may  be  present  in  severe  cases. 

Treatment:  Remove  the  cause;  provide  clean,  dry  bedding. 
Pare  away  all  diseased  and  ragged  portions  of  the  frog.  It  may  be 
necessary  to  remove  all  of  the  horny  frog.  Cleanse  and  dry  the  parts 
and  keep  dry  by  dusting  with  calomel.  After  healing  occurs, 
apply  a  bar-shoe  and  tarred  oakum,  or  otherwise  provide  for  frog- 
pressure  to  prevent  the  contraction  of  the  heels  which  often  follows. 

Differentiate  thrush  and  canker.     Give  prognosis  and  treatment  of 
each. 
See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Canker  is  a  chronic  inflammation  of  the  secreting  structures  of 
the  foot,  due  to  the  presence  of  an  infection  (probably  specific), 
which  prevents  the  growth  of  healthy  horn  and  produces  a  greasy 
discharge,  exceedingly  offensive  to  the  sense  of  smell. 

Prognosis:  In  canker,  rather  unfavorable.     Requires  long,  con- 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  255 

tinned,  patient  endeavors  to  effect  a  cure.    Relapses  are  common. 
Thrush  usually  responds  readily  to  rational  treatment. 

Treatment:  In  canker  remove  all  diseased  horn  and  cauterize; 
sulphuric  acid,  nitrate  of  silver,  formalin,  zinc  chloride  and  tinc- 
ture of  iodine  have  been  used  with  good  results.  Daily  cleansing 
is  imperative.  When  healthy  horn  covers  the  affected  parts,  apply 
a  tar  dressing. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  laminitis. 

Causes:  Overwork;  long-continued  rest;  sudden  cooling  of  the 
body  after  perspiring  freely;  overfeeding,  especially  when  warm; 
occurs  as  a  complication  of  colic,  influenza,  parturition,  and  as  a 
sequel  of  severe  purgation. 

Sjonptoms :  Acute  form  appears  suddenly  with  fever,  character- 
istic attitude  with  fore  feet  advanced  and  hind  feet  thrust  forward 
to  relieve  weight  from  the  affected  members.  If  all  four  feet  are 
affected,  all  movement  is  exceedingly  painful.  Strong  pulsation  is 
noted  in  the  plantar  arteries  and  the  feet  are  warm  and  very  tender. 
These  symptoms  may  disappear  in  from  7  to  10  days,  or  continue 
into  the  chronic  form.  Sometimes  suppuration  occurs  and  is  fol- 
lowed by  shedding  of  the  hoof. 

Chronic  form :  The  soles  ' '  drop ' '  and  the  os  pedis  is  displaced, 
•  shown  by  the  depression  around  the  coronet  and  the  convexity  of  the 
sole.  Seedy-toe  often  appears.  The  patient  travels  with  the  fore 
limbs  in  abnormal  dorsal  flexion,  the  heels  striking  the  ground  first. 
Rings  form  upon  the  walls  of  the  hoof,  showing  the  disturbed 
nutrition  of  the  same. 

Treatment:  Acute  form:  Remove  the  shoes  and  supply  a  soft 
bed  so  that  the  weight  is  supported  by  the  soles  as  well  as  the  walls. 
Use  cold  applications  during  the  first  24  hours.  Give  a  quick-acting 
cathartic  such  as  arecoline  and  draw  6  or  8  quarts  of  blood  if  the 
patient  is  plethoric.  After  24:  hours,  use  hot  applications.  Stand 
the  patient  in  a  tub  containing  sufficient  hot  water  to  cover  the 
feet.  Give  one  grain  of  arecoline  daily,  in  divided  doses  of  i/4  grain 
each.  Feed  a  laxative  diet.  A  blister  around  the  coronet  may 
relieve  the  soreness. 

In  case  of  dropped  sole  (chronic  case),  proper  shoeing  is  the 
only  measure  likely  to  benefit.  An  open  shoe  with  a  broad  web  and 
a  wall-bearing  surface  only  is  best.  A  bar-shoe  of  the  same  type 
would  be  indicated  if  the  wall  is  weak  or  broken  away.  Avoid  toe- 
clips  and  side-clips  if  their  presence  produces  pain  in  the  sensitive 
structures  beneath. 


256  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

State  briefly  the  surgical  details  in  treating  a  case  of  penetrating  street- 
nail. 
Carefully  pare  away  the  sole  around  the  point  of  entrance  of  the 
nail  and  provide  drainage  for  any  discharges  which  may  form- 
Dress  with  antiseptics  and  keep  the  wound  covered  with  absorbent 
gauze  or  cotton.  If  the  nail  has  entered  the  navicular  bursa,  resec- 
tion of  the  perforans  tendon  will  be  necessary. 

Describe  a  method  of  treating  contracted  hoof. 

Apply  a  bar-shoe,  or  a  flat  open  shoe  and  the  Chadwick  spring. 
Keep  the  horn  soft  and  pliable  by  frequent  moistening. 

How  would  you  shoe  a  horse  to  overcome  forging? 

Shorten  the  toe  of  the  fore  foot  and  roU  the  toe  of  the  shoe  to 
facilitate  quick  ' '  breaking  over. ' '  The  ends  of  the  branches  of  the 
shoe  should  be  no  longer  than  necessary  to  protect  the  heels  and 
should  be  bevelled  from  the  hoof  surface  of  the  shoe  downward  and 
forward  under  the  foot.  The  hind  foot  should  be  lowered  in  the 
quarters  and  left  long  at  the  toe.  It  should  be  fitted  with  a  shoe, 
squared  at  the  toe  and  well  rounded  on  the  lower  edge  in  this  region. 
The  shoe  should  be  so  fitted  that  at  least  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
of  the  wall  of  the  toe  projects  beyond  the  shoe.  In  feet  in  which 
the  toe  is  too  short,  a  low  toe-calk  may  be  used  to  cause  slow  ' '  break- 
ing over. ' ' 

Describe  the  treatment  of  quarter  crack  in  a  heavy  draft  horse.     De- 
scribe the  proper  kind  of  shoe  to  apply  in  such  a  case. 
Thin  the  horn  for  an  inch  on  both  sides  of  the  crack,  directly 
-  over  the  coronary  band,  to  prevent  any  friction  between  the  sides 
of  the  crack.     Immobilize  the  crack  by  bandaging  the  hoof  with 
adhesive  tape.    Apply  a  bar-shoe,  Chadwick  spring  and  leather  sole. 

Describe  the  shoe  you  would  have  applied  in  a  case  of  contracted  per- 
foratus  and  perforans  tendons  of  the  hind  limb  of  a  draft 
horse. 
An  open  shoe  with  low  toe-calk  and  with  heel-calks  sufficiently 
high  to  give  the  necessary  support  to  the  heels. 

State  the  uses  of  a  bar-shoe.    When  is  a  bar-shoe  contra-indicated? 

The  bar-shoe  is  used  when  frog-pressure  is  desired  as  in  con- 
tracted quarters,  contracted  sole,  chronic  laminitis,  quarter-crack, 
wry-hoof,  and  frog  atrophy ;  when  it  is  desirable  to  relieve  a  diseased 
section  of  wall  from  pressure  as  in  corns,  etc. 

The  bar-shoe  is  contra-indicated  when  side-bones  or  navicular 
disease  are  present,  or  when  disease  of  the  frog  or  subjacent  tissues 
renders  frog-pressure  painful. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  267 

How  would  you  shoe  a  horse  to  afford  speedy  relief  from  a  bruised 
heel? 

Use  a  shoe  with  heel-calks  and  long  branches  which  do  not  press 
upon  the  quarters. 

Methods  of  Restraint,  Casting,  Etc. 

Name  three  common  methods  of  restraint. 

Side-line,  hobbles  and  operating  table. 

Mention  three  methods  of  restraint  in  the  standing  position  and  two 
in  the  recumbent  position. 

1.  Side-line,  stocks  and  twitch. 

2.  Hobbles  and  operating  table. 

Describe  two  methods  of  casting  the  horse  and  ox  for  operation. 

Horse :  1.  Adjust  hobbles  on  all  four  feet.  Pass  a  rope  or  chain 
through  the  rings  in  same  and  draw  the  feet  together,  causing  the 
horse  to  fall.  A  soft  bed  should  be  provided  for  the  horse  to  fall 
upon  (English  hobbles).  2.  A  casting  harness  may  be  used.  A 
strong  girth,  provided  with  large  rings,  is  buckled  tightly  around  the 
chest  close  behind  the  elbows.  Hobbles  are  placed  on  all  four  feet 
and  ropes  are  run  from  the  same  to  the  rings  on  the  sides  of  the  girth. 
When  the  ropes  are  drawn  taut,  the  horse  falls  and  is  secured  by 
tying  the  feet  to  the  girth.  A  ''figure  8"  made  with  the  rope  on 
both  hocks  will  hold  the  horse  more  securely. 

Ox:  1.  Either  of  the  above  methods  may  be  used.  2.  A  long 
rope  (36  feet)  is  fastened,  by  one  end,  to  the  horns  or  head  and 
carried  backward,  making  three  "  half -hitches "  around  the  body, 
one  just  anterior  to  the  shoulders,  another,  just  back  of  the  elbows, 
and  the  last  around  the  abdomen,  anterior  to  the  external  angle  of 
the  ilium.  By  pulling  firmly  on  the  free  end  of  the  rope  thus 
adjusted,  the  ox  will  lie  down.    Hobbles  can  then  be  adjusted. 

Mention  the  chief  accidents  that  may  occur  in  casting  and  securing 
animals  for  operation.  State  how  such  accidents  may  be 
avoided. 

1.  Fractured  vertebras.  Provide  a  soft  bed  for  the  animal  to 
fall  upon.  Prevent  violent  movements.  Be  sure  the  patient  is  free 
from  an  abnormal  fragility  of  the  bones  before  casting.  Don't 
extend  the  hind  limbs  too  forcibly,  by  drawing  the  feet  too  far  for- 
ward and  upward. 

2.  Fracture  of  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium.  Provide  a  soft 
bed.    Avoid  throwing  too  suddenly. 

17 


258  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

3.  Fracture  of  the  pelvic  girdle  and  femur  may  be  due  to  abnor- 
mal fragility  of  the  bones. 

4.  Facial  paralysis.  Avoid  by  using  a  hood-wink  which  will 
protect  the  facial  nerve  from  injury. 

What  anaesthetics  are  commonly  employed  in  major  operations  and 
minor  operations  on  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  ox,  (c)  the  dog. 

(a)  Major :  chloroform,  chloral  hydrate,  cannabis  indica. 
Minor :  cocaine  hydrochlorate,  stovaine  and  alypin. 

(b)  Major:  morphine,  chloral  hydrate  and  chloroform. 
Minor :  cocaine  hydrochlorate  and  stovaine. 

(e)  Major:  ether  and  morphine. 

Minor :  cocaine  hydrochlorate  and  stovaine. 

What  are  the  dangers  of  chloroform  anaesthesia?     How  may  these 
dangers  be  avoided? 

1.  Inhalation  pneumonia :  Keep  the  head  lowered  to  allow  better 
drainage  from  the  nasal  cavities.  Fast  the  patient  for  24  hours  be- 
fore administering  the  angesthetic  to  lessen  danger  of  regurgitation 
of  food  into  the  pharynx.  Do  not  prolong  the  stage  of  anaesthesia 
unnecessarily. 

2.  Syncope:  Avoid  giving  the  chloroform  too  fast  and  with 
insufficient  air  or  over  too  long  a  period  of  time.  Patients  with 
heaves,  valvular  disease  of  the  heart,  or  dyspnoea  from  any  cause 
should  be  given  chloroform  very  guardedly  or  not  at  all. 

How  would  you  anaesthetize  a  foot  for  a  painful  operation  ? 

By  injecting  one  drachm  of  a  4  per  cent,  solution  of  cocaine 
hydrochlorate  over  each  plantar  nerve  at  the  point  where  high 
plantar  neurectomy  is  performed.  Observe  antiseptic  precautions 
in  injecting. 

Describe  briefly  a  quick  and  satisfactory  method  of  sterilizing  your 
hands  and  instruments. 
If  the  hands  are  cleansed  thoroughly  with  soap,  water  and  a 
scrubbing  brush,  then  immersed  for  five  minutes  in  a  4  per  cent, 
solution  of  potassium  permanganate  and,  finally,  in  a  10  per  cent, 
solution  of  oxalic  acid  until  the  stain  of  the  permanganate  of  potash 
disappears,  they  will  be  perfectly  sterile.  Tlie  oxalic  acid  should 
be  rinsed  off  with  sterile  water. 

Instruments  may  be  sterilized  by  placing  in  boiling  water  for 
fifteen  minutes. 


OBSTETRICS* 

Obstetrical  Anatomy 

Name  the  soft  organs  concerned  in  obstetric  anatomy. 

Ovaries,  uterus,  vagina,  vulva  and  mammte. 

What  is  the  pelvis?  Name  the  functions  of  the  pelvis.  How  many 
centres  of  ossification  appear  in  its  early  formation? 

The  pelvis  is  a  bony  framework  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the 
trunk,  supporting  the  spinal  column  and  resting  upon  the  posterior 
extremities.  It  contains,  sustains  and  protects  a  portion  of  the 
genito-urinary  apparatus,  as  well  as  the  terminal  portion  of  the 
alimentary  canal.  It  constitutes  a  most  important  fulcrum  or  fixed 
point  in  various  muscular  movements  and  supplies  a  passageway  for 
the  fcetus  during  the  act  of  parturition. 

Five  centres  of  ossification  appear  in  each  half  in  its  early  for- 
mation; one  for  each  of  the  three  bones  and  two  complementary 
centres,  one  for  the  anterior  spinous  process  and  spine  of  the  ileum, 
the  other  for  the  ischial  tuberosity. 

Make  a  drawing  to  show  the  normal  position  of  the  generative  organs 
of  the  mare.  Show  also  the  kidney,  the  bladder  and  the 
rectum,  j- 

State  how  the  bones  of  the  pelvis  of  the  mare  differ  from  those  of  (a) 
the  cow,  (b)  the  sheep,  (c)  the  goat,  (d)  the  bitch,  (e)  the 
cat. 

(a)  The  pelvis  of  the  cow  is  longer  and  less  vertical  than  in  the 
mare.  Because  of  the  greater  curvature  of  the  ischiopubic  sym- 
physis, the  floor  is  concave.  The  pelvis  of  the  cow  is  more  cylindrical 
and  less  conical  than  that  of  the  mare. 

(b)  and  (c)  The  pelvis  of  the  sheep  and  of  the  goat  is  about  the 
same  as  in  the  cow,  except,  of  course,  in  size.  The  symphysis  is 
nearly  rectilinear  in  its  direction,  and  it  ossifies  at  a  very  much 
later  period  than  in  the  cow  or  mare. 

(d)  and  (e)  The  marked  angle  formed  by  the  sacrum  and  the 
lumbar  vertebrge  diminishes  the  inlet  of  the  pelvis.  The  direction 
of  the  symphysis  is  rectilinear  and  the  pelvic  cavity  is  nearly 
cylindrical. 

*  Unless  otherwise  stated  all  questions  relate  to  the  horse. 

t  There  are  no  illustrations  in  this  book,  but  this  drawing  would  seem  com- 
paratively simple. 

259 


260  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

State  the  difference  between  the  pelvis  of  the  sheep  and  that  of  the  cow. 
Difference  is  mainly  in  size.     The  coxae  of  the  sheep  are  more 
horizontal  and  proportionately  longer  than  in  the  ox. 

Give  approximately  the  supero-inferior  and  the  transverse  diameters 
of  the  bony  pelvis  of  the  cow. 

Inlet.  Outlet. 

Supero-inferior 8  to  10  inches.  9  inches. 

Transverse    7  inches.  7  inches. 

Name  the  different  articulations  of  the  pelvis. 

One  sacrolumbar,  two  sacro-iliac,  one  ischiopubic  symphysis, 
and  one  sacrococcygeal. 

Name  the  ligaments  connecting  the  last  lumbar  vertebrae  with  the 
sacrum  and  the  pelvis. 
Common    inferior    vertebral,    supradorsolumbar,    interspinous, 
interlamellar,  and  capsular. 

Describe  (a)  the  iliosacral  ligaments,  (b)  the  sacrosciatic  ligament. 

(a)  The  superior  iliosacral  ligament  is  a  thick  and  short  cord 
which  arises  from  the  internal  angle  of  the  ileum  and  passes  back- 
ward to  be  fixed  to  the  sacral  spine  where  it  becomes  confounded 
with  the  supraspinous,  dorsolumbar  ligament.  The  inferior  ilio- 
sacral ligament  is  attached  by  its  anterior  margin  to  the  upper  half 
of  the  sciatic  border  and  the  internal  angle  of  the  ileum.  Its  inferior 
margin  is  inserted  into  the  rugged  lip  on  the  lateral  border  of  the 
sacrum.  Its  posterior  border  is  united  to  the  aponeurosis  covering 
the  coccygeal  muscles,  and  its  external  face  is  in  contact  with  the 
gluteus  magnus  and  long  vastus  muscles.  The  internal  face  lies 
against  the  lateral  sacrococcygeal  muscle. 

(b)  This  is  a  large  membranous  ligament  situated  on  the  side 
of  the  pelvis  between  the  sacrum  and  the  coxa.  It  is  irregularly 
quadrilateral,  having  four  borders.  The  superior  border  is  attached 
to  the  lateral  rugged  lateral  ridge  of  the  sacrum;  the  inferior  is 
fixed  to  the  supracotyloid  ridge  and  ischial  tuberosity ;  the  anterior 
aids  in  forming  the  great  sciatic  notch,  and  the  posterior  is  con- 
founded with  the  coccygeal  aponeurosis.  Its  internal  face  is  covered 
with  peritoneum.  This  ligament  affords  a  large  area  for  muscular 
insertion  as  well  as  serving  a  means  for  enclosing  the  pelvic  cavity. 

Where  is  the  ischial  notch?     What  vessels  and  nerves  pass  through  it? 
The  ischial  notch  lies  between  and  is  formed  by  the  postero- 
internal borders  of  the  two  ischii  as  they  join  at  the  symphysis. 
The  artery  of  the  bulb  in  the  male,  the  perineal  artery  and  the 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  261 

artery  of  the  clitoris  in  the  female,  all  being  branches  of  the  internal 
pndic  artery,  pass  through  the  ischial  notch,  as  does  the  pudic  nerve. 

Describe  the  structure  of  the  vulva. 

The  vulva  lies  immediately  beneath  the  anus  and  opens  exter- 
nally by  means  of  a  vertically  elongated  slit,  bounded  by  two  lips 
(labia  vulvte)  which  meet  above  and  below  to  form  the  superior  and 
inferior  commissures.  It  has  two  groups  of  muscles  which  are 
chiefly  circular  and  are  termed  anterior  and  posterior  constrictors. 
The  vulva  is  lined  with  mucous  membrane,  continuous  with  that  of 
the  bladder  and  vagina.  Within  the  vulvar  cavity,  about  four  inches 
from  the  exterior  and  lying  on  its  floor,  is  the  meatus  urinarius,  the 
terminal  opening  of  the  urethral  canal.  In  the  inferior  is  the  clitoris, 
an  erectile  organ  two  or  three  inches  in  length,  composed  chiefly 
of  erectile  tissue. 

Describe  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  vulva  and  state  what  kind  of 
epithelium  covers  it. 
It  is  continuous  with  that  of  the  vagina  and  bladder  and  is 
rosy-red  in  color.  Near  the  free  border  of  the  labia,  it  often  shows 
black  pigment  patches.  It  contains  a  great  number  of  mucous  fol- 
licles and  sebaceous  glands.  The  epithelium  lining  the  vulva  is  of 
stratified  pavement  type. 

Give  the  anatomy  of  the  uterus. 

The  uterus  is  a  musculomembranous  sac,  situated  in  the  sublum- 
bar  and  pelvic  regions  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  is  related  above 
to  the  rectum;  below,  with  the  bladder;  anteriorly  and  laterally, 
with  intestines,  and  behind,  with  the  vagina. 

It  presents  for  study  a  base  and  two  cornua.  The  base  is  con- 
stricted posteriorly  to  form  the  cervix  (or  neck)  and  communicates 
with  the  vagina  through  a  circular  opening,  the  os.  The  base  is 
continuous  with  the  two  cornua,  right  and  left.  The  cornua  have 
a  superior  or  convex  and  an  inferior  or  concave  curvature,  a  base 
continuous  with  the  uterus,  and  a  summit  continuous  with  the 
oviducts. 

The  uterus  is  supported  by  two  broad  ligaments  which  descend 
from  the  sublumbar  region  to  the  sides  of  the  uterus  and  cornua, 
and  envelop  the  ovaries  and  their  ducts;  two  rudimentary,  round 
ligaments  running  from  the  sides  of  the  uterus  to  the  beginning  of 
the  inguinal  canal. 

The  uterus  is  made  up  of  three  coats,  an  outer  serous,  derived 
from  the  peritoneum;  a  middle,  muscular;  and  an  inner,  mucous. 


262  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Blood  is  supplied  to  the  organ  by  the  utero-ovarian  and  uterine 
arteries,  and  it  is  innervated  by  branches  from  the  mesenteric  and 
pelvic  plexuses. 

Describe  the  uterus  of  the  bitch. 

The  body  of  the  uterus  is  short,  but  the  cornua  are  very  long 
and  folded,  and  float  amongst  the  intestinal  convolutions.  Its  cervix 
projects  into  the  vagina.  The  mucous  membrane  is  very  loose  and 
gathered  into  folds.  The  muscular  coat  is  well  developed  and 
is  covered  externally  with  peritoneum. 

Give  the  blood  and  nerve  supply  of  the  uterus. 

Uterine  and  utero-ovarian  arteries.  Innervated  by  branches 
from  the  small  mesenteric  and  pelvic  plexuses. 

Describe  the  ligaments  of  the  uterus.  What  are  the  functions  of  these 
ligaments? 

The  broad  ligaments,  two  in  number,  are  irregularly  triangular 
in  shape,  and  are  more  developed  before  than  behind.  They  descend 
from  the  sublumbar  region  to  be  attached  by  their  inferior  border 
to  the  sides  of  the  upper  face  of  the  body  of  the  uterus  and  the 
small  curvature  of  the  cornua.  They  sustain  the  Fallopian  tubes 
and  ovaries.  These  ligaments  are  close  to  each  other  posteriorly  in 
the  region  of  the  cervix  but  separate  anteriorly  like  the  branches  of 
the  letter  V.    They  suspend  the  uterus  in  the  sublumbar  region. 

The  round  ligaments,  two  in  number,  outside  of  the  broad  liga- 
ments, contain  in  their  folds  a  small  thin  muscle.  These  ligaments 
run  from  the  sides  of  the  uterus  to  the  beginning  of  the  inguinal 
canal.  Their  function  is  to  support  and  retain  the  uterus  in  its 
proper  position. 

Describe  the  glands  of  the  uterus  and  give  their  functions. 

They  are  mucous  glands  and  are  designated  simple  and  cylin- 
drical. The  former,  most  numerous  near  the  cervix,  secrete  the  pecu- 
liar transparent  mucous  found  there.  The  cylindrical,  uterine  or 
utricular  glands  are  closely  situated  and  are  often  twisted  in  a  spiral 
fashion.  They  resemble  other  mucous  glands  with  spheroidal  epi- 
thelium in  the  bottom  of  the  tube  and  columnar  cells  in  their  ducts. 

Describe  an  ovary. 

A  small  ovoid  body,  situated  in  the  sublumbar  region,  with  a  deep 
notch  or  hilus  on  its  upper  surface  which  receives  the  oviduct.  It 
is  attached  by  the  ovarian  ligament  to  the  uterus  and  supported  by 
the  broad  ligament. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  263 

It  is  covered  by  a  serous  coat  except  at  the  hilus.  Underneath 
this  coat  is  a  strong  fibrous  coat  and  beneath  this  coat  is  the  ovarian 
tissue  proper.  The  latter  is  hard  and  grayish-red  and  is  divided 
into  an  external  cortical  and  an  internal  medullary  portion.  The 
cortex  is  made  up  of  connective  tissue  and  holds  large  numbers  of 
Graafian  vesicles  or  ovisacs  which  contain  the  ova.  The  medulla 
is  red  and  spongy  and  is  composed  of  connective  tissue  which  is 
richly  supplied  with  blood-vessels.  The  ovary  receives  its  blood 
from  the  utero-ovarian  artery  and  is  innervated  by  a  branch  from 
the  mesenteric  plexus. 

State  how  the  ovaries  of  the  mare  differ  from  those  of  (a)  the  cow,  (b) 
the  sheep,  (c)  the  goat,  (d)  the  pig,  (e)  the  bitch,  (f )  the  cat. 

(a)  Much  smaller  than  in  the  mare,  but  are  identical  in  form 
and  structure.    See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

(b)  and  (c)  Same  remark  applies. here  as  given  in  (a). 

(d)  The  ovary  is  lobulated  in  the  pig. 

(e)  and  (f)  Slightly  lobulated  in  aspect. 

Describe  the  mammary  gland. 

The  mammary  gland  consists  of  two  glandular  bodies  situated  in 
the  posterior  and  inferior  abdominal  region.  They  are  hemispherical 
in  shape  and  terminate  below  in  a  small  prominence,  the  teat.  Ex- 
ternally, they  are  covered  with  skin,  beneath  which  is  a  fibrous  coat 
which  sends  prolongations  into  the  interior  of  the  gland.  The 
glandular  tissue  contains  acini  which  open  into  lactiferous  ducts. 
These  ducts  unite  and  form  canals  which,  in  turn,  form  two,  three 
or  four  sinuses  that  open  by  several  canals  on  the  teat.  The  external 
pudic  artery  supplies  the  gland  with  blood  and  innervation  is 
received  from  the  first  pair  of  lumbar  nerves. 

Describe  the  mammary  glands  of  the  bitch. 

These  are  ten  in  number,  arranged  in  two  rows  of  five  each, 
and  extend  from  the  inguinal  region  to  below  the  chest.  They  have 
no  galactiferous  reservoirs  and  the  lactiferous  ducts  unite  directly 
into  a  variable  number  of  canals  that  pass  through  the  teat  to  pierce 
its  extremity  by  from  five  to  ten  orifices. 

Describe  the  vesiculae  seminales  and  give  their  function. 

The  vesiculse  seminales  are  two  oval  pouches,  situated  above 
the  neck  of  the  bladder,  and  having  a  body  and  an  anterior  and 
posterior  extremity.  The  latter  is  tapering  and  unites  with  the  vas 
deferens  to  form  the  ejaculatory  duct.  The  anterior  extremity  forms 
a  rounded  cul-de-sac  partially  covered  with  peritoneum.    The  walls 


264  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

are  composed  of  three  membranes :  an  internal,  mucous ;  a  middle, 
muscular ;  and  an  external,  fibrous.  The  function  of  these  bodies  is 
to  store  semen  for  the  copulatory  act.  They  also  secrete  mucus  which 
tends  to  dilute  the  semen  much  the  same  as  the  secretion  from  the 
prostate  and  Cowper's  glands. 

Are  the  vesiculas  seminales  found  in  all  the  domestic  animals?     Ex- 
plain. 
No.    They  are  not  found  in  the  dog  and  cat. 

Physiology 

State  the  four  chief  functions  of  the  generative  system. 

Copulation,  impregnation,  fetation  and  parturition. 

Describe  the  Fallopian  tubes  and  state  their  function. 

The  Fallopian  tubes,  or  oviducts,  are  two  small  cylindrical  flex- 
uous  canals,  about  ten  inches  long,  one  of  which  is  lodged  in  each 
broad  ligament.  They  extend  in  a  tortuous  manner  from  the  uterine 
cornua  to  the  ovaries.  The  calibre  of  their  canal  is  very  small  at 
the  uterine  extremity,  scarcelj^  admitting  a  hair  but  it  enlarges  at 
the  ovarian  end  where  it  terminates  in  a  pavilion.  The  pavilion 
is  fixed  to  the  external  side  of  the  ovary  and  opens  into  the  peritoneal 
cavity.  The  function  of  these  tubes  is  to  convey  the  ova  from  the 
ovaries  to  the  uterus  and  spermatozoa  to  the  ovary. 

State  what  takes  place  in  the  ovary  during  the  period  of  menstruation. 
Give  the  reason  for  the  pitted  appearance  of  the  ovaries  in 
old  age. 
During  menstruation  there  is  an  increased  blood  supply  to  the 
ovary.     A  certain  Graafian  vesicle,  or  vesicles,  according  to  the 
species,  becomes  more  voluminous  than  the  others,  raises  the  envelop- 
ing membrane  of  that  body  and  projects  on  the  surface.    Around  this 
vesicle  the  blood-vessels  enlarge,  and  effusion  takes  place ;  the  cap- 
sule distends  and  gives  way,  allowing  the  ova  to  escape. 

The  pitted  appearance  of  the  ovaries  in  old  age  is  due  to  repeated 
rupturing  of  Graafian  vesicles  and  the  shrinkings  and  cicatrizations 
of  the  same. 

Define  fecundation,  abortion,  eutocia,  dystocia. 

Fecundation  is  the  fertilization  or  impregnation  of  the  ovum, 
which  occurs  when  it  is  reached  by  the  spermatozoon. 
Abortion  is  the  expulsion  of  a  foetus  before  it  is  viable. 
Eutocia  is  a  normal  parturition. 
Dystocia  is  an  abnormal,  painful,  or  slow  parturition. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  265 

Define  the  corpus  luteum.  Describe  the  changes  in  the  ovary  after 
fecundation. 
The  corpus  luteum,  or  "yellow  body,"  is  a  yellow  mass  in  the 
ovary  in  the  place  of  an  ovisac  which  has  discharged  its  ovum.  If 
the  ovum  has  been  impregnated,  the  corpus  luteum  grows  and  lasts 
for  several  months,  usually  throughout  pregnancy.  If  impregnation 
has  not  taken  place,  the  corpus  luteum  degenerates  and  shrinks. 

After  fecundation  of  the  ovum,  segmentation  occurs.  The  ovum 
divides  into  halves,  each  half  subdivides,  etc.,  forming  a  spherical 
mass  known  as  the  morula. 

Define  (a)  a  true  corpus  luteum,  (b)  a  false  corpus  luteum. 

If  the  ovum  has  been  impregnated,  the  corpus  luteum  grows  and 
lasts  for  several  months  and  is  called  a  ' '  true  corpus  luteum. ' '  If 
impregnation  has  not  taken  place,  it  degenerates  and  shrinks  and  is 
called  a  "false  corpus  luteum." 

Describe  the  corpus  luteum  in  the  cow  and  the  sow. 

See  preceding  answers.  The  ovisac  is  filled  with  lymph  and 
blood,  projects  beyond  the  ovarian  surface,  and  is  deep  yellow  in 
color  in  the  cow,  and  a  yellowish-brown  color  in  the  sow. 

Give  the  cause  of  menstruation. 

Not  definitely  known.  It  is  thought  to  be  due  to  the  shedding 
of  the  epithelium  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  uterus.  This  ex- 
poses the  tunic  of  the  capillaries,  causing  them  to  rupture  because 
of  their  distended  condition. 

Is  the  menstrual  flow  independent  of  the  influence  of  the  ovaries? 
Explain. 
No.     There  is  a  close  bond  of  sympathy  between  the  ovaries  and 
the  uterus,  which  defies  explanation.    It  is  well  known  that,  after 
removal  of  the  ovaries,  menstruation  ceases  to  occur. 

Define  embryology,  embryotomy,  hydrocephalus. 

Embryology  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  development  of  the 
embryo. 

Embryotomy  refers  to  the  cutting  up  of  a  foetus  to  facilitate 
delivery. 

Hydrocephalus  is  a  fluid  effusion  within  the  cranium. 

Name  the  female  generative  organs  and  state  the  function  of  each. 
Ovaries:  generate  ova. 

Oviducts :  serve  to  convey  the  ova  from  the  ovaries  to  the  uterus 
and  spermatozoa  to  the  ovary. 


266  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Uterus:  place  of  nourishment  and  development  of  the  embryo 
and  fcetus. 

Vagina:  copulatory  organ  and  passageway  for  the  foetus  dur- 
ing parturition. 

Vulva :  same  as  the  vagina. 

Mammae:  supply  nourishment  to  new-born. 

Define  orgasm. 

Orgasm  is  the  crisis  of  venereal  excitement,  that  is,  the  time  of 
ejaculation  of  semen. 

State  the  organic  modifications  the  genital  organs  undergo  after  labor. 
The  uterus  reduces  in  volume  and  weight  by  the  oxidation,  de- 
generation and  absorption  of  the  cells  of  the  muscular  fibres.  The 
mucous  membrane,  which  has  been  enormously  thickened,  under- 
goes fatty  degeneration  and  modification  until  the  uterine  interior 
presents  the  appearance  it  possessed  before  impregnation.  The 
cervix  contracts,  closes  and  regains  its  former  shape. 

Describe  the  difference  between  the  maternal  and  the  foetal  cotyledons. 

The  maternal  cotyledons  are   dark-yellow  in  color  and  their 

surface  is  covered  with  crypts.    The  fetal  cotyledons  are  bright-red 

in  color  and  on  their  surface  is  a  multitude  of  long,  branched  villi 

which  are  received  into  the  depressions  of  the  maternal  cotyledons. 

Are  spermatozoa  always  found  in  the  semen  ?    Explain. 

No.  They  are  usually  absent  in  cases  of  cryptorchidism,  testicular 
tumors,  inflammations  and  degenerations  of  the  testicles.  Hydro- 
cele may  prevent  the  formation  of  spermatozoa.  The  following 
conditions — debilitating  diseases,  overwork  and  excessive  sexual  use, 
individually  or  jointly — lessen  the  abundance  of  the  male  fertilizing 
element  and  in  some  cases  may  lead  to  a  complete  absence  of  same. 

Is  the  vagina  strictly  a  generative  organ?     Explain. 

Yes.  Because  it  serves  as  an  organ  of  copulation  and  as  a  passage- 
way for  the  foetus  only. 

Give  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  following  terms :  uniparous,  multi- 
parous,  primiparous,  pluriparous. 
Uniparous  refers  to  animals  which  bring  forth  but  one  offspring 
at  birth,  as  the  mare  and  cow. 

Multiparous  refers  to  animals  which  bring  forth  several  offspring 
at  one  time,  as  the  bitch  and  cat. 

Primiparous :  Bearing,  or  having  borne  but  one  offspring. 
Pluriparous :  Same  as  multiparous. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  267 

What  is  the  influence  of  the  pregnant  uterus  on  the  neighboring 

organs  ? 

The  immense  volume  of  the  pregnant  uterus  occasionally  disturbs 

the  neighboring  viscera  as  shown  by  colic,  tympanites,  constipation, 

oedema,  coughing  and  paraplegia.    Pressure  on  the  sciatic  nerve  is 

shown  by  cramp  of  the  posterior  limbs. 

How  is  the  period  of  menstruation  characterized  in  (a)  the  cow,  (b) 
the  sow,  (c)  the  bitch,  and  (d)  the  cat? 

(a)  By  nervous  excitement,  restlessness,  bellowing  and  mounting 
other  animals  of  its  species.  There  is  an  increased  secretion  of 
mucus  from  the  vulva  and,  toward  the  end  of  the  period,  blood-clots 
or  a  slight  blood-stained  discharge.  The  period  lasts  about  2  days 
and  reappears  every  21  days  unless  impregnation  occurs. 

(b)  The  sow  manifests  rut  by  restlessness,  rooting,  squealing, 
swelling  of  the  vulva  and  a  sanguinolent  discharge  therefrom.  The 
appetite  is  impaired  and  she  seeks  the  company  of  the  opposite  sex. 
The  period  lasts  from  2  to  5  days  and  reappears  in  15  to  30  days, 
but  usually  every  month. 

(c)  By  nervous  excitement,  restlessness,  wandering  away  from 
home,  seeking  males,  swelling  and  turgidity  of  the  vulva,  frequent 
urination  and  a  sanguinolent  discharge.  The  appetite  is  capricious 
and  thirst  is  increased.  The  period  lasts  from  2  to  3  weeks  and 
appears  twice  a  year  (spring  and  autumn,  as  a  rule). 

(d)  By  nervous  excitement  and  an  over-affectionate  disposition. 
There  is  an  uncontrollable  desire  to  seek  the  opposite  sex.  Rest- 
lessness is  a  notable  feature  and  the  movements  of  rolling  and 
otherwise  betray  the  prevailing  desires.  The  generative  organs  are 
more  or  less  turgid  and  sensitive  and  the  urogenital  secretions  are 
increased.    This  phenomenon  appears  3  to  4  times  a  year. 

What  is  an  emmenagogue  ?     Name  two  of  the  principal   emmena- 
gogues. 
An  emmenagogue  is  any  agent  which  stimulates  or  favors  the 
menstrual  discharge.    Ergot  and  rue  are  well  known  emmenagogues. 

Describe  the  secretions  of  the  foetus. 

Mucus  is  secreted  by  the  glands  of  the  mouth,  oesophagus  and 
stomach.  Bile  is  secreted  by  the  liver,  and  emptied  into  the  intes- 
tines where  it  is  mixed  with  the  fluid  thrown  out  by  the  glands 
there,  forming  meconium.  Urine  is  secreted  by  the  kidneys,  and 
the  thjTnus,  thyroid,  spleen  and  suprarenal  glands  are  said  to  be 
active  in  fetal  life. 


268  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Name  the  secretory  glands  that  are  active  in  fetal  life. 
See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

State  the  duration  of  pregnancy  in  (a)  the  mare,  (b)  the  cow,  (c)  the 
sow,  (d)  the  bitch,  (e)  the  ewe. 
(a)   330-340  days;   (b)  270-280  days;   (c)   115-120  days;   (d) 
58-65  days;  (e)  145-155  days. 

Trace  the  journey  of  the  ovum  from  incipiency  to  the  accomplishment 
of  fertilization. 
After  rupture  of  the  Graafian  vesicle,  the  ovum  escapes  and  is 
conveyed  into  the  Fallopian  tube  by  means  of  the  fimbriated  extrem- 
ity of  the  same.  It  passes  down  the  tube  to  the  uterus  where  it  is 
met  by  the  spermatozoa.  This  meeting  may  take  place  in  the 
oviduct  but  the  ovum  usually  continues  to  descend  to  the  uterus. 

Describe  physiologically  the  impregnation  of  the  ovum. 

The  spermatozoa  pass  through  the  outer  layer  of  the  ovum 
(zona  pellucida).  The  germinal  vesicle,  or  nucleus  of  the  ovum, 
disappears  and  a  somewhat  opaque,  embryonal  cell  (pronucleus) 
succeeds.  "With  the  formation  of  the  pronucleus,  the  vitellus  becomes 
separated  from  the  zona  pellucida  and  begins  to  rotate  therein. 
Then  a  segmentation  of  the  embryonal  cell  into  two  portions  occurs ; 
each  of  these  two  portions  divide  into  two,  etc.  This  division  and 
subdivision  continue  for  a  short  time  (2  or  3  days)  until  the  stage 
of  morula  is  reached.  At  this  stage  the  mass  is  still  spherical,  is 
surrounded  by  the  vitelline  membrane  and  the  zona  pellucida,  and 
contains  the  mass  of  cells  resulting  from  the  repeated  divisions 
before  mentioned.  After  this  the  mass  enlarges,  changes  shape,  and 
the  germinal  layers  form. 

Give  the  composition  of  cow's  milk. 

•  Water  87 

Solids     13 

Albumin     3.30 

Fat    4.00 

Lactose     4.95 

Salts     75 

State  the  difference  in  the  composition  of  the  milk  of  the  mare  and 
that  of  the  cow. 
See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Mare's  milk  contains  more  water  and  sugar  but  less  fat  and 
albumen  than  cow's  milk. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  269 

Average  composition  of  mare 's  milk  is  as  follows : 

Water     91.8 

Solids   8.2 

Albumen    2.6 

Fat    6 

Lactose    4.7 

Salts    3 

What  is  colostrum?    Give  the  composition  of  colostrum. 

Colostrum  is  the  first  fluid  secreted  by  the  mammary  gland  after 
delivery.    Its  average  composition  is  as  follows : 

Water     75.8 

Albumen  and  casein   15.0 

Fat    2.6 

Lactose     3.6 

Salts     3.0 


Pregnancy 

Describe  the  physiologic  and  anatomic  modifications  that  the  uterus 
undergoes  while  the  foetus  is  developing. 
The  uterus  assumes  a  somewhat  oblong  or  globular  form.  Its 
mucosa  becomes  redder,  thicker,  more  pulpy  and  vascular.  The 
serous  coat  also  hypertrophies  and  the  fibres  of  the  muscular  coat 
increase  in  number  and  volume.  The  uterus,  at  this  time,  is  more 
sensitive  to  nervous  stimuli.  The  increase  in  volume  and  weight 
causes  it  to  descend  and  rest  upon  the  abdominal  fioor.  The  os 
uteri  is  firmly  closed  by  the  contraction  of  the  circular  muscular 
fibres  of  the  cervix  and  is  sealed  with  an  albuminoid  clot.  As  par- 
turition time  approaches,  the  os  relaxes  and,  when  labor  begins, 
dilates  widely. 

State  what  changes  take  place  in  the  generative  organs  of  the  female 
after  conception. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

In  addition  to  the  changes  in  the  uterus,  a  true  corpus  luteum 
forms  in  the  ovaries,  and  the  mammary  glands  become  activated. 

What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  regard  to  the  care  and  food  of 

pregnant  animals? 

They  should  be   regularly  exercised  and  well   fed   on   easily 

digested  nutritive  food  which  does  not  constipate.    Plenty  of  pure 

water  is  essential.     They  should  be  well  groomed  and  provided 

with   clean   and   commodious   quarters,   especially   as  parturition 


270  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

approaches.  Harsh  or  cruel  treatment  and  surgical  operations 
should  be  avoided  if  possible.  Avoid,  also,  strong  medicines  such 
as  drastic  purgatives,  powerful  narcotics,  etc.  The  milking  period 
of  cows  should  be  limited  to  seven  or  seven  and  one-half  months, 
to  allow  the  foetus  more  nutritive  material  for  its  perfect  develop- 
ment. 

Name  the  principal  signs  of  pregnancy. 

Absence  of  estrum,  enlargement  of  abdomen,  enlargement  of  the 
mamma",  feeling  of  the  foetus  per  rectum,  per  vaginam,  or  through 
the  abdominal  wall,  auscultation  of  the  fetal  heart-beat,  and  observ- 
ing the  movements  of  the  living  foetus. 

Describe   (a)   ovarian  gestation,   (b)   tubal  gestation,   (c)   abdominal 
gestation. 

(a)  Ovarian  gestation  is  rare.  Apparently  it  is  due  to  a  failure 
of  the  ovum  to  escape  when  the  ovisac  ruptures.  The  spermatozoa 
passes  up  the  oviduct  and  impregnates  the  ovum  which  then  pro- 
ceeds to  develop,  as  in  normal  gestation. 

(b)  Impregnation  occurs  in  the  oviduct.  The  o\'um  becomes 
attached  to  the  walls  of  the  duct  and  development  proceeds.  "When 
the  foetus  attains  a  sufficient  size,  the  oviduct  ruptures  and  fatal 
hemorrhage  may  ensue,  or  the  foetus  may  become  attached  to  or 
imbedded  in  the  peritoneal  surface,  and  continue  to  develop. 

(c)  Abdominal  gestation  may  follow  rupture  of  the  gravid 
uterus  or  the  ovum  may  fall  into  the  abdominal  cavity,  following 
rupture  of  the  ovisac,  and  become  impregnated  there.  The  foetus 
becomes  attached  to  the  abdominal  walls  or  some  of  the  viscera  and 
the  fetal  membranes  closely  invest  the  fetal  body. 

Describe  extra-uterine  pregnancy. 

Extra-uterine  pregnancy  is  the  existence,  for  a  greater  or  less 
period  of  time,  of  a  living  ovum  outside  of  the  uterine  cavity,  but 
within  the  abdominal  cavity.     (See  answer  to  preceding  question.) 

How  are  the  varieties  of  extra-uterine  pregnancy  commonly  desig- 
nated? 
Ovarian,   tubal   and   abdominal    gestation.      (See    explanation 
above.) 

What  are  the  effects  of  indigestion  on  pregnant  animals? 

Tympanites,  constipation  and  diarrhoea  usually  accompany  in- 
digestion. These  conditions  tend  to  produce  abortion  through  press- 
ure, straining  and  reflexly,  respectively.    Furthermore,  indigestion 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  271 

causes  inanition  and  thereby  prevents  the  mother  from  properly 
nourishing  the  foetus. 

Give  the  function  and  describe  the  early  development  of  the  placenta. 

The  function  of  the  placenta  is  to  establish  communication  be- 
tween the  mother  and  foetus  by  means  of  the  umbilical  cord. 

In  the  mulberry  stage  (stage  of  morula),  the  zona  radiata  throws 
out  tufts,  the  primordial  chorion,  which  unite  with  the  uterine 
mucosa.  This  zone  soon  becomes  attenuated  and  disappears  while 
the  blastoderm  enlarges  within  it.  But  this  primitive  chorion  is  not 
permanent,  it  is  replaced  by  another,  similar,  but  more  efficient 
structure. 

From  the  surface  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  blastoderm,  tufts  or 
villi  grow  out  to  extend  into  the  uterine  mucosa.  Through  these 
villi,  there  is  an  exchange  of  nutritive  material  and  waste  products 
between  mother  and  foetus.  This  is  later  supplanted  by  a  permanent 
attachment,  formed  by  the  tufts  of  the  allantois  which  grow  out 
through  the  amniotic  chorion  to  gain  an  intimate  relation  with  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  uterus. 

Describe  the  phenomena  of  nutrition  in  the  foetus. 

Before  the  placenta  is  formed,  the  ovum  is  bathed  with  an  albu- 
minoid substance  which  nourishes  it  during  early  development. 
Later  with  the  development  of  the  placenta,  which  brings  the  capil- 
lary systems  of  the  mother  and  foetus  into  the  closest  relationship, 
nourishment  passes  to  the  foetus  by  osmosis. 

Define  (a)   zonary  placenta,   (b)   diffuse  placenta,   (c)   cotyledonary 
placenta. 

(a)  A  placenta  which  is  band-like  in  form.  In  the  bitch  and 
cat,  the  placenta  forms  a  thick,  annular  band,  or  zone,  about  one 
and  one-half  inches  wide,  passing  around  the  middle  of  the  chorion. 

(b)  A  diffuse  placenta  is  one  in  which  the  chorionic  villge  are 
diffused  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  chorion.  Seen  in  the  mare 
and  sow. 

(c)  A  placenta  in  which  the  villi  are  restricted  to  certain  areas 
(80  to  100  in  number)  called  cotyledons.    Seen  in  cows  and  sheep. 

Mention  the  animals  in  which  cotyledons  eire  found. 

Cow,  sheep  and  goat. 

Describe  the  umbilical  cord  and  state  its  function. 

The  umbilical  cord  is  a  collection  of  vessels  which  extends  from 
the  placenta  to  the  fetal  umbilicus.  It  is  about  35  inches  long  in 
the  mare  and  15  inches  in  the  cow.    It  is  formed  by  the  allantoic 


272  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

stalk,  surrounded  by  the  amnion,  and  includes  the  remnant  of  the 
vitelline  duct.  For  convenience  of  description,  it  may  be  divided 
into  an  amniotic  and  an  allantoic  portion.  The  amniotic,  the  longer, 
extends  from  the  umbilicus  of  the  fcBtus,  through  the  amniotic  cavity, 
to  open  into  the  cavity  of  the  allantois.  It  contains  the  following 
structures :  the  amnion,  the  two  umbilical  arteries,  the  two  umbilical 
veins  which  are  sometimes  fused  into  a  single  vessel,  the  urachus, 
and  the  vestiges  of  the  vitelline  duct,  besides  Whartonian  gelatin. 

The  allantoic  portion  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  mass  of 
umbilical  vessels ;  other  structures  found  in  it  are  the  remnants  of 
the  vitelline  duct,  and  Whartonian  gelatin. 

The  umbilical  cord  forms  a  bond  of  communication  between  the 
foetus  and  the  placenta. 

Describe  the  position  of  the  foetus  in  multiple  pregnancy. 

Each  foetus  may  have  its  own  amnion  and  chorion,  or  each  may 
have  its  own  amnion,  but  the  same  chorion.  Occasionally,  in  twin 
pregnancies,  one  foetus  is  more  or  less  enclosed  within  the  body  of 
the  other. 

In  ruminants  (cow  and  ewe)  each  of  the  twin  foetuses  usually 
occupies  one  cornua  of  the  uterus  and  presents  with  the  head  toward 
the  OS  uteri ;  although  occasionally  they  present  alternately,  that  is, 
one  anteriorly  and  the  other  posteriorly. 

What  is  the  liquor  amnii?     Give  its  functions  in  pregnancy  and  during 
labor. 

The  liquor  amnii  is  an  albuminous  alkaline  fluid,  found  in  the 
amniotic  sac,  in  which  the  foetus  is  suspended.  It  contains  about 
99  per  cent,  of  water,  as  well  as  albumin,  sugar,  urea,  and  other 
urinary  products,  also  meconium.  The  amount  of  the  fluid  in  the 
mare  and  cow  varies  from  5  to  6  litres. 

During  pregnancy,  it  is  useful  in:  1.  Preserving  an  equable 
temperature  for  the  foetus.  2.  Protecting  the  skin  of  the  foetus. 
3.  Favoring  movements  of  the  foetus  by  equalizing  pressure,  4,  Pre- 
venting injuries  of  the  foetus  from  external  movements.  5.  Protect- 
ing the  mother  from  injury  by  fetal  movements. 

During  labor,  it  protrudes  the  membranes  and  dilates  the  os  uteri, 
protects  the  foetus  from  violent  uterine  contractions,  and  lubricates 
the  vagina,  thus  facilitating  passage  of  the  foetus  through  it. 

Mention  the  four  stages  in  the  process  of  sexual  generation. 
Copulation,  fecundation,  gestation,  and  parturition. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  273 

■ 

Describe  the  operation  of  artificial  impregnation. 

This  operation  consists  of  transferring  semen  from  the  vagina 
of  a  female,  with  which  the  male  has  recently  copulated,  to  the  vagina 
of  another  female.  No  special  apparatus  is  necessary,  in  fact,  any 
ordinary  sterile  syringe,  or  the  hand  will  answer  the  purpose. 

Cleanliness  must  be  observed.  Allow  the  male  to  serve  a  female 
and,  promptly  afterward,  withdraw  some  of  the  semen  into  the 
syringe  and  inject  it  into  the  cervical  canal  of  the  second  female. 

Describe  an  impregnator  and  state  how  impregnation  is  accomplished 
by  its  use. 
An  impregnator  is  an  instrument  designed  to  keep  open  the  os 
uteri  during  copulation  and  thus  insure  a  direct  discharge  of  the 
semen  into  the  uterus.  It  consists  of  a  hollow,  soft-rubber  tube, 
3  to  4  inches  in  length.  It  is  constricted  in  the  middle  portion  and 
flanged  at  the  posterior  end  to  prevent  it  from  falling  into  the 
uterus.  Those  who  advocate  its  use  do  so  with  the  belief  that  sterility 
in  most  cases  is  due  to  occlusion  of  the  os.  Intelligent  breeders 
ignore  the  instrument.  Prof.  Williams,  in  his  "Veterinary  Ob- 
stetrics, ' '  regards  the  use  of  impregnators  as  "  a  harmless  diversion 
which  ordinarily  will  not  prevent  conception. ' 


5> 


Mention  the  changes  in  position  of  the  neighboring  organs  during  the 
development  of  the  uterus  in  pregnancy. 
The  vagina  is  drawn  forward  except  in  the  last  stages  of  gesta- 
tion, when  the  foetus  protrudes  into  the  pelvic  cavity.  The  stomach 
is  pushed  to  the  left  and  the  intestines  and  liver  are  compressed; 
the  diaphragm  is  pushed  forward  and  the  abdomen  becomes  en- 
larged, rounded  and  pendulent. 

State  the  function  of  the  liver  in  fetal  life. 

It  serves  as  a  blood-forming  and  blood-purifying  organ. 

What  is  the  blastoderm?     How  are  its  membranes  divided ? 

The  blastoderm  is  the  delicate  membrane  which  lines  the  zona 
pellucida  of  the  impregnated  ovum.  Its  membranes  are  divided  into 
hypoblast,  mesoblaM  and  epiblast. 

What  do  the  different  layers  of  the  blastoderm  form? 

The  hj^oblast  forms  the  epithelium  of  the  alimentary  canal  and 
of  the  organs  connected  with  it,  and  that  of  the  air-passages. 

The  mesoblast  develops  into  the  skin  and  connective-tissue  struc- 
tures, the  bones,  muscles,  organs  of  excretion,  and  internal  genitals. 

From  the  epiblast  are  developed  the  epidermis  and  epidermic 
tissues,  such  as  nails,  hair  and  glands  of  the  skin,  the  nervous  sys- 
18 


274  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

tern,  the  external  sense-organs,  as  ear,  eye,  etc.,  and  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth  and  anus. 

What  changes  take  place  in  the  blood  of  pregnant  animals? 

There  is  said  to  be  an  increase  in  the  volume  of  the  blood  in  the 
body  of  a  pregnant  animal,  but  a  decrease  in  its  corpuscles  and  solid 
constituents.  Quite  recently,  investigators  have  proven  the  pres- 
ence of  a  certain  substance  in  the  serum  of  pregnant  animals  which  is 
of  value  in  diagnosing  pregnancy. 

Name  the  envelopes  surrounding  the  foetus  and  describe  each. 

1.  Chorion,  the  outer  envelope,  is  a  vast,  membranous,  closed 
sac.  It  being  moulded  upon  the  uterine  wall,  resembles  the  uterus 
in  form,  having  a  body  and  two  cornua.  The  cornua  are  unequal  in 
size,  the  one  in  which  the  foetus  lies  being  the  largest.  The  external 
surface  of  the  chorion  is  studded  with  small,  red  tubercles,  formed 
by  the  placental  villous  tufts  which  join  it  to  the  internal  surface  of 
the  uterus.  The  internal  surface  is  lined  by  the  external  layer  of  the 
allantois,  except  at  the  umbilical  cord,  where  there  exists  a  kind  of 
conical  infundibulum,  occupied  by  the  umbilical  vesicle.  It  is  united 
to  the  allantois  by  a  layer  of  mucous  connective  tissue. 

The  chorion  not  only  plays  a  mechanical  part  in  protecting  the 
fcetus  and  supporting  tlie  placental  blood-vessels,  but  it  holds  cer- 
tain nutritive  materials. 

2.  The  amnion,  the  second  sac  enveloping  the  foetus,  is  a  thin, 
transparent  membrane.  It  floats  freely  in  the  interior  of  the  chorion, 
but  is  only  imited  to  it  at  one  point  through  the  medium  of  the 
umbilical  cord.  It  is  ovoid  in  shape  and  contains  the  foetus  which 
is  attached  to  its  inner  face  by  the  vessels  of  the  umbilical  cord. 
In  the  early  embryonic  stage,  it  closely  envelops  the  embryo  but, 
later,  it  is  distended  with  fluid  (liquor  amnii)  and  is  thus  separated 
from  the  fcetus.  The  smooth,  internal  face  secretes  the  liquor  amnii 
which  bathes  the  foetus  and  serves  important  functions.  The  exter- 
nal face  is  closely  adherent  to  the  inner  layer  of  the  allantois. 

The  amnion  is  made  up  of  three  layers :  a  very  thin,  connective- 
tissue  membrane  that  adheres  to  the  allantois;  a  membrane-proper 
which  is  made  up  of  connective  tissue  and  some  musculai'  fibres ;  and 
an  epithelial  layer  which  lines  the  latter. 

3.  The  allantois  is  a  thin  membrane  which  lines  the  inner  face 
of  the  chorion,  and  is  reflected  around  the  insertion  of  the  umbilical 
cord  to  be  spread  over  the  outer  face  of  the  amnion.  By  so  doing, 
it  transforms  the  chorionic  sac  into  a  kind  of  serous  cavity  witli  the 
amniotic  sac  enclosed  within  it.    The  allantoic  cavity  communicates 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  275 

with  the  fetal  bladder  by  means  of  the  urachns.    The  structure  of  the 
allantois  is  slightly  fibrous  with  an  epithelial  layer. 

Describe  the  development  of  the  skin  o£  the  foetus. 

The  skin  is  developed  from  the  middle  and  outer  layers  of  the 
blastoderm  (the  mesoblast  and  epiblast).  From  the  mesoblast,  the 
skin-proper,  or  derma,  is  formed,  and  from  the  epiblast,  the  epi- 
dermis and  epidermic  tissues,  such  as  the  nails,  hair,  sudoriparous 
and  sebaceous  glands  are  formed.  Blood-vessels  are  apparent  in 
the  derma  as  early  as  the  third  month.  The  horny  and  mucous 
layers  of  the  epidermis  are  distinguished  soon  after.  As  the  foetus 
increases  in  volume,  the  epidermis  exfoliates  and  its  debris  is  found 
in  the  liquor  amnii.  Hair  is  developed  in  the  epidermic  laminae 
which  are  prolonged  into  the  substance  of  the  derma.  It  is  seen  on 
the  eyebrows,  lips  and  the  joints  of  the  limbs  early  in  fetal  life, 
and  by  the  sixth  or  seventh  month  covers  the  body. 

Trace  the  development  of  the  nervous  system. 

The  first  trace  of  the  central  nervous  system,  the  neuraxis,  is 
found  in  the  primitive  groove,  resulting  from  an  invagination  of  the 
thickened  ectoderm.  The  groove  deepens  and  the  neural  folds  which 
border  it  increase  in  prominence  until  they  fuse  together  above, 
making  a  closed  canal,  lined  by  ciliated  epiblastic  cells.  This  canal 
persists  throughout  the  animal's  life  as  the  central  canal  in  the 
spinal  cord,  and  as  the  ventricles  of  the  brain.  The  deeper  epiblastic 
cells  in  the  walls  of  the  canal  develop  into  the  nerve-cells  of  the 
cerebrospinal  axis.  The  anterior  part  of  the  canal  shows  three 
successive  dilatations  which  ultimately  become  the  various  divisions 
of  the  brain.  The  spinal  motor  nerves  arise  from  the  cord  and 
the  sensory  branches  appear  to  be  developed  from  the  spinal  ganglia 
which  are  separately  formed. 

Describe  the  situation  of  the  pregnant  uterus  in  the  mare  and  cow. 

The  pregnant  uterus  occupies  the  floor  of  the  abdominal  cavity. 
In  the  mare,  it  is  displaced  somewhat  to  the  left  by  the  pelvic 
flexure  of  the  colon  and  passes  beneath  the  latter  to  the  left  of  the 
median  line  until  it  reaches  the  diaphragm.  In  the  cow,  the  rumen 
displaces  the  pregnant  uterus,  causing  it  to  pass  downward  and 
slightly  to  the  right  of  the  median  line  to  reach  the  diaphragm. 

Describe  the  position  of  the  foetus  in  the  ninth  or  tenth  month  of  preg- 
nancy. 
The  head  is  directed  backward  and  ventrally  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  lower  jaw  is  in  contact  with  the  throat,  and  the  mouth 
touches  the  sternal  region.     The  neck  lies  against  the  maternal 


276  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

sacrum.  The  fore  limbs  are  flexed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  knees 
are  against  the  middle  of  the  head  and  the  feet,  the  umbilicus.  The 
hind  limbs  are  flexed  under  the  body  and  the  pelvic  portion  of  the 
foetus  is  in  the  bottom  of  the  uterus,  near  the  stomach. 

Trace  the  growth  of  the  urinary  organs. 

The  kidneys  arise  from  the  Wolffian  bodies.  These  are  glandular 
bodies  which  appear  very  early  in  embryonic  life,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  vertebrge  and  extend  from  the  heart  to  the  pelvis.  Each 
empties  through  a  duct  into  the  cloaca.  These  bodies  are  perhaps 
more  concerned  in  the  development  of  the  sexual  organs  than  the 
urinary.  At  any  rate,  early  in  embryonic  life  there  appears  near 
the  beginning  of  each  Wolffian  duct,  an  outgrowth,  or  cul-de-sac, 
which  forms  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney.  From  the  walls  of  these  sacs, 
a  number  of  branching  tubules  arise  to  become  the  urinary  tubules 
and  thus  complete  the  kidney.  The  posterior  part  of  these  sacs 
become  the  ureters  which  empty  into  the  cloaca.  The  bladder  is 
derived  from  a  dilatation  of  the  abdominal  portion  of  the  allantois. 
Posteriorly  the  allantois  is  constricted  to  form  the  urethra.  The 
extrapelvic  portion  of  the  latter  is  formed  by  the  closing  of  the 
genital  furrow  of  the  penis. 

Abortion 

What  is  meant  (a)  by  abortion,  (b)  by  premature  birth  ? 

(a)  The  expulsion  of  a  foetus  from  the  uterus  before  it  is  suffi- 
ciently developed  to  live. 

(b)  The  expulsion  of  a  foetus  from  the  uterus  before  the  proper 
time  but  in  a  viable  condition. 

Give  the  symptoms  of  abortion. 

In  many  cases  there  are  no  premonitory  symptoms  and  often  the 
first  evidence  is  the  presence  of  the  foetus  and  its  membranes.  In 
other  cases,  warning  is  given  by  the  swollen  vulva  and  its  muco- 
purulent discharge  together  with  enlargement  of  the  mammte.  Fre- 
quently, there  is  a  secretion  of  milk  for  days  and  even  weeks  before 
abortion  occurs.  The  act  of  abortion  is  brief  and  is  accompanied 
by  labor  pains  as  in  normal  birth.  For  several  days  following,  a 
mucous  discharge,  tinged  with  blood  and  often  containing  particles 
of  pus  and  after-birth,  is  observed.  Unless  complications  ensue, 
the  mother  seems  to  be  but  little  inconvenienced. 

Mention  some  of  the  causes  of  non-contagious  abortion. 

Mechanical  injuries,  severe  hemorrhage,  castration,  drugs,  cer- 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  277 

tain  infectious  diseases,  such  as  foot-and-mouth  disease,  hog  cholera, 
etc. 

Discuss  the  etiology  of  infectious  abortion  in  cows.  Describe  briefly 
the  course  and  symptoms  of  infectious  abortion. 

(There  are  many  conflicting  opinions  on  all  phases  of  this 
disease. ) 

Infectious  abortion  in  cows  is  due  to  a  short  bacillus  (bacillus 
of  Bang)  which  is  carried  from  cow  to  cow  by  the  bull,  although 
other  means  of  transmission  are  recognized.  Entering  the  uterus, 
at  the  time  of  copulation,  or  later,  it  produces  a  catarrhal  endo- 
metritis with  a  fibrinous  exudate  which  causes  a  separation  of  the 
placenta  from  the  uterine  wall  and  abortion  follows.  Some  authori- 
ties think  the  infection  enters  by  way  of  the  digestive  tract  and 
udder,  and  is  carried  by  the  blood  to  the  cotyledons.  In  many  cases 
the  infection  remains  in  the  system  from  a  previous  abortion. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  abortion  occurs  at  about  the  fourth  to 
sixth  month  of  pregnancy.  It  may  occur  much  earlier  or  very  near 
the  end  of  gestation.  The  foetus  is  usually  born  dead,  or,  if  alive,  it 
very  rarely  survives.  A  few  days  before  abortion  occurs,  a  yellow, 
or  reddish-tinged  mucopurulent  discharge  is  seen  to  escape  from 
the  vulva.  The  latter  becomes  reddened  and  swollen.  The  milk 
secretion  lessens  and  finally,  with  very  little  straining  or  apparent 
inconvenience,  the  foetus  is  expelled.  In  a  great  majority  of  cases, 
portions  of  the  after-birth  are  retained  and  a  mucopurulent,  blood- 
tinged  discharge  follows  for  ten  days  or  two  weeks.  The  infection 
remains  in  the  internal  genital  organs  for  several  months,  so  it  is 
quite  common  for  the  cow  to  abort  a  second  time.  After  the  second 
abortion,  the  infection  seems  to  disappear,  or  at  least  the  animal 
is  immune  to  its  effects. 

What  methods  should  be  employed  in  the  control  of  an  outbreak  of 
infectious  abortion  in  a  herd  of  cows? 
Separate  the  infected  from  the  non-infected.  Burn  aborted 
foetuses,  after-births,  and  soiled  bedding.  Disinfect  stalls  and  gut- 
ters. Irrigate  the  uterus  of  each  aborting  cow  with  a  1-1000  solu- 
tion of  potassium  permanganate.  Wash  the  external  genitals  of  all 
pregnant  cows  with  the  disinfectant.  Separate  attendants  should 
be  assigned  to  the  two  divisions  of  the  herd.  The  sheath  of  the  bull 
should  be  disinfected  before  and  after  copulation.  A  separate  bull 
might  be  used  for  infected  and  non-infected  cows.  Precautions 
should  be  observed  in  introducing  new  animals  into  the  herd. 


278  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Labor 

Define  (a)  presentation,  (b)  position. 

(a)  The  appearance  of  some  particular  part  of  the  fetal  body 
at  the  pelvic  inlet  during  labor. 

(b)  The  situation  of  the  fcetus  with  respect  to  the  mother  at 
appearance  of  labor. 

Mention  the  normal  presentations  of  the  foetus  in  domestic  animals. 
Anterior  and  posterior. 

Name  the  different  positions  of  the  foetus  during  labor. 

1.  Longitudinal: 

A.  Anterior  presentation : 

(a)  Dorsosacral  position. 

(b)  Right  or  left  dorso-ilial  position. 

(c)  Dorsopubic  position. 

B.  Posterior  presentation : 

(a)  Dorsosacral  position. 

(b)  Right  or  left  dorso-ilial  position. 
(e)  Dorsopubic  position. 

2.  Transverse. 

A.  Dorsal  presentation : 

(a)  Right  or  left  cephalo-ilial  position, 

B.  Ventral  presentation: 

(a)   Right  or  left  cephalo-ilial  position. 

What  are  the  four  principal  presentations? 

Anterior,  posterior,  dorsal  and  ventral. 

What  is  the  most  favorable  and  most  frequent  presentation? 

Anterior  presentation,  dorsosacral  position,  with  both  forefeet 
and  head  presenting. 

Define  (a)  eutocia,  (b)  version,  (c)  rotation. 

(a)  A  safe,  easy,  or  natural  parturition. 

(b)  The  changing  of  a  transverse  into  a  longitudinal  presen- 
tation. 

(c)  The  turning  of  a  fcetus  upon  its  long  axis. 

Name  four  of  the  most  difficult  presentations. 

1.  Anterior  presentation  with  both  fore  limbs  retained. 

2.  Transverse  presentation. 

3.  Breech  presentation  with  complete  retention  of  the  posterior 
limbs. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  279 

4.  Anterior  presentation  with  forward  extension  of  the  hind 
limbs  beneath  the  fetal  body. 

Mention  two  different  ways  by  which  the  cervix  of  the  uterus  may  be 
dilated. 

1.  Use  of  drugs,  especially  injections  of  cocaine  or  stovaine. 

2.  Mechanical,  either  by  manual  or  instrumental  methods. 

Mention  the  signs  and  the  different  stages  of  parturition. 

1.  Preliminary  stage :  Enlargement  of  mammie ;  swelling  of  the 
vulva ;  relaxation  of  the  broad  and  sacrosciatic  ligament. 

2.  Dilation  of  the  os  uteri :  Accompanied  by  restlessness,  labor- 
pains  and  presentation  of  ' '  water-bag. ' ' 

3.  Expulsion  of  fretus :  Pains  more  severe  and  frequent ;  strain- 
ing, rupture  of  ' '  water-bag ' '  and  expulsion  of  foetus. 

4.  Expulsion  of  the  membranes.  This  may  occur  at  birth  or  soon 
after.    The  uterus  contracts  and  the  mass  comes  away. 

Mention  some  of  the  causes  of  dystocia. 

Maternal:  Pelvic  constriction,  uterine  inertia,  torsion  of  the 
uterus. 

Fetal:  Excess  in  volume,  monstrosities,  multiparity,  diseases, 
faulty  presentation. 

Name  (a)  five  maternal  causes  of  dystocia,  (b)  five  fetal  causes  of 
dystocia. 

(a)  Pelvic  constriction,  uterine  inertia,  torsion  of  the  uterus, 
uterine  hernia,  atresia  of  the  cervix. 

(b)  Hydrocephalus,  wry-neck,  emphysema,  double  monstrosities, 
faulty  presentation. 

Name  two  pathologic  conditions  of  the  foetus  that  interfere  with  par- 
turition. State  how  each  of  these  conditions  may  be  over- 
come. 

1.  Hydrocephalus.  This  consists  of  a  distention  of  the  lateral 
ventricles  of  the  brain  with  lymph.  In  extreme  cases,  the  cranium 
is  distended  to  two  and  three  times  the  normal  size,  and  offers  a 
serious  obstacle  to  parturition.  Dystocia  due  to  this  congenital 
defect  is  overcome  by  puncturing  the  tumor  and  breaking  down  the 
cranial  bones  with  the  chisel. 

2.  Wry-neck.  This  deformity  of  the  foetus  is  characterized  by 
an  abrupt  deviation  of  the  head  and  neck  to  one  side.  The  cervica) 
portion  of  the  spinal  column  is  bent  and  the  muscles  so  contracted 
that  the  head  is  held  rigidly  in  this  abnormal  position. 

To  overcome  the  impediment  which  this  condition  offers,  ampu- 


280  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

tate  the  head  and  neck  by  means  of  a  chain-saw  or  otherwise,  with- 
draw the  severed  member,  and  then  proceed  with  the  remaining  por- 
tion as  in  normal  parturition. 

How  would  you  deliver  an  anterior  presentation  in  a  case  of  hydro- 
cephalus ? 
See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

What  are  the  disadvantages  under  which  the  veterinary  obstetrist 
labors  in  case  of  dystocia? 
He  is  frequently  hampered  by  being  called  after  some  unskilled 
persons  have  complicated  matters  or  done  irreparable  injury  to  the 
mother  and  foetus  by  their  crude  tactics.  Many  times  the  quarters  in 
which  parturient  animals  are  kept  are  poorly  lighted,  improperly 
ventilated  and  dirty.  Plenty  of  clean,  warm  water  is  not  always 
to  be  had.  Lastly,  the  severe  straining  of  such  large  animals  as 
cows  and  mares  is  fatiguing  to  the  arm  of  the  operator  and  impedes 
his  necessary  manipulations  to  a  great  extent. 

Mention  four  different  mechanical  means  for  the  extraction  of  the 
foetus. 
Cords,  hooks,  forceps,  and  halters. 

How  may  strong  muscular  contractions  of  the  uterus  be  overcome  in 

case  of  malpresentation  in  dystocia? 

Many  methods  have  been  tried,  pressure  on  the  loins,  tying  a 

rope  tightly  round  the  body,  twitching  the  nose  or  ear,  etc.     The 

most  humane   and  satisfactory  way  is   the   administration   of  a 

narcotic  (opium,  chloral  hydrate,  or,  better  still,  chloroform). 

What  are  the  indications  for  the  use  of  ergot  in  labor  and  how  should 
ergot  be  given? 
Ergot  is  used  in  case  of  uterine  inertia  when  there  is  no  mal- 
position of  the  fcetus  or  mechanical  obstruction  to  its  passage. 
Very  small  doses  should  be  given  to  increase  the  force  of  the  uterine 
contractions  without  producing  spasms  of  the  organ  or  of  the 
cervix. 

Under  what  conditions  would  you  use  a  repeller  for  the  removal  of  a 
calf? 
When  the  foetus,  in  a  faulty  position,  has  become  wedged  in  the 
pelvic  cavity  or  is  approaching  the  inlet,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
return  it  into  the  uterus  to  effect  a  proper  presentation  and  position. 
Occasionally,  when  the  fcetus  is  presenting  properly  and  is  in  a 
good  position,  it  is  advantageous  to  repel  it  in  order  to  attach  cords 
to  some  part  of  its  body. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  281 

Give  the  method  of  delivering  an  anterior  presentation  (dorsosacral 
position)  with  the  fore  limbs  retained. 
Repel  fcBtus  upward  and  backward,  pass  a  cord  around  the 
radius,  slide  it  down  toward  the  carpus,  correct  the  deviation  and 
complete  the  delivery.  If  the  head  has  passed  beyond  the  vulva, 
decapitation  may  be  advantageous  before  attempting  repulsion. 
In  some  cases  amputation  of  one  limb  and  evisceration  may  be  neces- 
sary to  reduce  the  size  of  the  foetus  and  facilitate  delivery. 

Give  a  method  of  delivery  of  the  cephalosacral  position  of  the  foetus. 

In  this  position,  the  foetus  sits  on  the  floor  of  the  abdomen,  the 
head  directed  forward  and  the  withers  toward  the  sacrolumbar 
region  of  the  mother.  That  is,  it  sits  up  like  a  dog.  By  most  authori- 
ties, this  position  is  considered  impossible  because  of  its  unstability. 
To  effect  delivery,  version  must  be  accomplished.  The  dorsal  pre- 
sentation must  be  changed  to  an  anterior  or  posterior.  Version  may 
be  effected  by  intra-uterine  injections  of  emollients  such  as  flax- 
seed or  slippery  elm  infusions.  If  this  method  fails,  evisceration 
and  detruncation  of  the  foetus  is  the  only  course  to  follow. 

Describe  a  method  of  delivering  a  right  cephalo-ilial  position,  dorso- 
lumbar  presentation. 

The  dystocia  from  this  position  is  practically  the  same  as  in  the 
cephalosacral  position  and  the  method  of  procedure  is  the  same. 
(See  answer  to  preceding  question.) 

Describe  the  sterno-abdominal  position  of  the  fcEtus. 

This  is  more  accurately  termed  "ventral  transverse  presenta- 
tion. ' '  The  foetus  presents  with  all  of  the  feet  in,  or  near,  the  pelvic 
inlet  and  the  head  retained.  It  lies  upon  its  side,  transverse  to  the 
long  axis  of  the  body  of  the  mother  with  the  head  resting  in  the 
flank  in  the  region  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  maternal  ilia.  Hence 
there  are  two  possible  positions,  right  cephalo-ilial  and  left  cephalo- 
ilial. 

Describe  Cesarean  section  in  the  mare  and  name  some  of  the  compli- 
cations that  may  arise  in  connection  with  this  operation. 
Cesarean  section  refers  to  the  delivery  of  a  foetus  by  means  of 
an  incision  through  the  abdominal  and  uterine  walls.  The  mare 
should  be  placed  under  general  ansesthesia.  Her  forelegs  should 
be  drawn  forward  and  the  hind  legs  backward  and  securely  fastened. 
The  field  of  operation  being  thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected, 
make  an  incision  in  the  flank  through  the  skin  and  muscles,  extend- 
ing from  the  level  of  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium  downward  about 


282  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

ten  inches.  The  peritoneum  is  then  incised  and  the  uterus  withdrawn 
through  the  opening.  It  should  be  laid  on  sterilized  gauze  which 
completely  surrounds  the  wound.  Next  make  an  incision  into  the 
gravid  uterus  which  will  readily  permit  the  extraction  of  the  foetus 
within  its  membranes.  Free  the  foetus  from  its  coverings  as  soon 
as  extracted ;  suture  the  wound  in  the  uterus  by  means  of  Lembert  's 
intestinal  suture  with  silk.  Close  the  abdominal  wound  with  inter- 
rupted sutures,  suturing  the  muscles  and  skin  separately.  Place 
patient  in  clean,  comfortable  quarters  to  recover  from  the  anaesthesia. 

Complications  to  be  feared  following  Cesarean  section  are: 
metritis,  peritonitis,  abscess  at  seat  of  incision,  and  adhesion  of  the 
abdominal  organs  to  this  part.  Internal  hemorrhage  and  collapse 
are  to  be  guarded  against. 

(Records  fail  to  show  where  the  life  of  a  mare  has  been  saved, 
but  a  living  foetus  is  often  brought  forth  by  this  operation. ) 

Describe  the  operation  of  Cesarean  section  in  multiparous  animals. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question.  In  the  sow,  bitch,  and  cat, 
the  incision  can  be  made  in  the  flank,  although  most  operators  prefer 
the  median  line.  The  technic  is  the  same  as  in  the  mare.  All  the 
foetuses  can  be  extracted  through  the  one  incision  into  the  uterus. 
A  body  bandage  should  be  applied  after  the  operation.  The  prog- 
nosis is  much  more  favorable  than  in  the  mare  and  cow. 

Describe  the  method  of  delivering  a  posterior  presentation  (lumbo- 
sacral position). 
Apply  traction  upon  the  two  hind  limbs  and  hasten  delivery  be- 
cause of  the  danger  of  asphyxiation  of  the  foetus  from  compression 
of  the  cord  against  the  pubic  brim.  This  is  considered  a  normal 
presentation  by  many  authorities.  Should  the  hind  limbs  be 
retained,  the  dystocia  is  a  very  difficult  one  to  overcome.  Attempt 
repulsion  and  correction  of  the  deviation  of  the  limbs.  Forced 
extraction  is  employed  by  some  obstetrists,  but  it  is  a  barbarous 
and  unsatisfactory  procedure.  Embryotomy  should  be  employed, 
preferably  intrafetal  amputation  of  the  two  posterior  limbs. 
Cesarean  section  is  a  last  resort. 

Describe  the  method  of  delivery  in  deviation  of  both  hind  limbs, 
anterior  presentation. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  malpositions  the  obstetrist  has 
to  overcome.    Repulsion  and  correction  of  the  deviation  should  be 
attempted  to  increase  the  working  space,  but  this  is  seldom  success- 
ful.   Remove  one  anterior  limb  and  detruncate  the  foetus.    Attach 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  283 

cord  to  and  repel  the  posterior  half.    Deliver  the  anterior  half  first 
and  then  the  posterior. 

Describe  method  of  delivering  extreme  downward  deviation  of  the 

head,  anterior  presentation. 

Attempt  replacement  of  the  head  by  seizing  the  muzzle  or  nostrils 

with  the  hand.     If  this  fails,  amputate  one  anterior  limb,  which 

then  allows  the  head  to  be  brought  into  position.    Delivery  in  the 

normal  way  is  then  easily  effected. 

What  care  should  be  given  the  dam  after  labor? 

Clean,  comfortable  quarters  should  be  provided.  Nourishing, 
succulent  food  should  be  freely  given  to  insure  an  abundant  milk 
secretion.  Grass  is  the  best  diet  for  herbivora.  The  mother  should 
be  kept  from  hard  labor  for  three  or  four  days,  and  all  undue  dis- 
turbance should  be  avoided.  If  the  labor  is  complicated  by  wounds 
of  the  genital  organs,  or  otherwise,  proper  treatment  should  be 
given.  Otherwise  such  interference  with  nature  is  contra-indicated. 
In  case  the  after-birth  is  not  expelled  in  the  usual  time  allowed, 
means  should  be  employed  to  remove  same. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  uterine  inertia  in  the  mare. 

The  foetus  presents  normally  and  in  a  favorable  position,  but 
there  is  a  deficiency  of  the  expelling  powers.  The  mother  is  usually 
weak,  debilitated,  and  maintains  a  decubital  attitude. 

Treatment  consists  of  the  administration  of  stimulants.  Ergot 
is  usually  chosen.  In  addition,  traction  should  be  applied  and 
delivery  effected. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  torsion  of  the  uterus. 

Torsion  of  the  uterus  is  shown  by  severe  expulsive  efforts,  colicky 
pains,  and  extreme  uneasiness.  If  death  of  the  foetus  has  occurred, 
metritis  and  peritonitis  may  be  present.  The  diagnosis  is  confirmed 
by  examination  per  vaginam  when  the  hand  encounters  the  spiral 
folds  of  the  vaginal  walls  and  os  uteri.  The  prognosis  is  grave. 
Reduction  of  the  twist  is  very  difficult.  It  may  be  attempted  in 
case  of  slight  torsion  by  inserting  the  hand  and  arm  into  the  uterus, 
grasping  a  limb  of  the  foetus,  and  exerting  force  on  same.  If  the 
torsion  is  severe,  it  is  impossible  to  gain  entrance  into  the  uterus  in 
this  way.  In  this  case,  rolling  of  the  mother  in  the  direction  of 
the  twist  is  the  logical  treatment.  "With  the  hand  in  the  vagina,  the 
operator  can  assist  by  preventing  the  uterus  from  turning  when  the 
mother  is  rolled.  These  methods  failing,  laparatomy  should  be  per- 
formed and  the  torsion  reduced  by  the  hand  placed  within  the  abdo- 
men.   As  a  last  resort  perform  Cesarean  section. 


284  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  the  treatment  of  rigidity  of  the  os  uteri. 

Inject  warm,  emollient  liquids  into  the  vagina.  Some  authorities 
recommend  smearing  the  os  uteri  with  extract  of  belladonna.  Local 
anaesthetics,  such  as  cocaine  and  stovaine,  might  be  useful.  IManual 
or  instrumental  dilatation  of  the  os  is  probably  the  best  method  to 
overcome  this  condition. 

Diseases  Incident  to  Pregnancy  and  Labor 
Name  the  most  prominent  diseases  following  parturition. 

Retention  of  the  after-birth,  postpartum  hemorrhage,  rupture  of 
the  uterus,  rupture  of  the  vagina,  eversion  of  the  uterus,  prolapse  of 
the  vagina,  septic  metritis  and  peritonitis,  parturient  eclampsia, 
parturient  apoplexy,  mammitis  and  laminitis. 

What  diseases  are  incidental  to  pregnancy? 

Osteomalacia,  dropsy  of  the  fetal  membranes,  paraplegia,  rup- 
ture of  the  uterus,  prolapse  of  the  vagina,  metrorrhagia,  abortion 
(sporadic  and  infectious). 

Name  five  diseases  following  parturition  in  the  cow  that  may  prove 
serious. 
Septic  metritis,  septic  peritonitis,  uterine  prolapse,  parturient 
paresis,  puerperal  septicaemia. 

Give  the  diagnosis  of  dead  foetus  in  utero. 

The  symptoms  may  vary,  depending  upon  whether  mummifi- 
cation or  putrid  decomposition  occurs.  In  the  former  condition,  no 
special  symptoms  are  noted ;  the  cow,  to  all  appearances,  is  in  good 
health,  she  continues  to  fatten,  the  abdomen  does  not  increase  in 
size,  the  udder  fails  to  develop,  and,  at  the  time  for  delivery,  no  signs 
of  parturition  appear.  Examination  per  rectum  will  reveal  the 
hard,  unyielding  mass. 

Putrid  decomposition  of  the  foetus  may  be  manifested  by  expul- 
sion of  portions  of  it  through  the  vagina,  an  artificial  opening  in  the 
abdominal  wall,  or  the  intestinal  tract.  The  patient  is  greatly  de- 
pressed, refuses  food,  and  shows  symptoms  of  septica?mia.  Examina- 
tion of  the  uterus  per  rectum  or  per  vaginam  will  disclose  the 
abnormal  condition. 

Give  the  causes  and  treatment  of  hydrops  uteri. 

Hydrops  uteri,  or  hydrometra,  is  a  very  rare  condition.  Two 
forms  are  described,  viz.,  oedema  of  the  uterine  walls  and  an  accumu- 
lation of  fluid  between  the  chorion  and  the  uterine  walls.  The 
cause  is  not  well  understood,  but  may  be  attributed  to  circulatory 
disturbances. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  285 

Treatment :  Evacuate  the  uterus  (removing  foetus  if  one  is  pres- 
ent) and  irrigate  the  cavity  with  mildly  astringent  antiseptics. 
Build  up  the  general  health  with  tonics. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  hydrops  amnii. 

The  causes  of  this  condition  are  not  well  understood. 

Symptoms:  The  most  important  symptom  is  the  enormous 
rotundity  of  the  abdomen.  The  walls  of  the  same  are  tense  and 
give  a  dull  sound  on  percussion.  As  the  swelling  increases,  the 
patient  becomes  dull,  emaciated,  and  aneemic.  Thirst  is  increased 
and  appetite  decreased.  The  respiratory  movements  become  labored, 
owing  to  the  pressure  on  the  diaphragm.  Rectal  examination 
clinches  the  diagnosis. 

Treatment:  Dilate  the  os,  rupture  the  membranes,  and  remove 
the  foetus.    Give  stimulants  and  aid  involution  of  the  uterus. 

Give  the  causes,  prognosis  and  treatment  of  antepartum  inversion  of 
the  vagina. 

Causes :  Not  well  kaown.  It  has  been  observed  most  frequently 
in  cows  that  have  been  closely  confined  and  overfed  on  bulky  feeds. 
These  factors  depress  the  general  vigor  and  favor  the  action  of 
infective  agents,  especially  in  the  vagina,  which  responds  by  becom- 
ing inflamed,  thus  inducing  straining  and  prolapse.  A  sloping  floor 
is  often  an  accessory,  if  not  a  direct,  causative  factor. 

Prognosis:  A  tendency  to  recur  until  parturition  is  completed 
makes  the  prognosis  unfavorable;  especially  is  this  so  when  the 
organ  becomes  badly  excoriated  and  inflamed.  If  delivery  of  the 
foetus  can  be  brought  about,  the  condition  is  more  easily  overcome. 

Treatment :  Cleanse  thoroughly  with  warm,  non-irritating,  anti- 
septic solutions  (1/4  per  cent,  lysol)  and  effect  reposition  of  the 
prolapsed  organ  by  gentle  manual  pressure.  The  replacement 
may  be  more  easily  accomplished  by  raising  the  hind  quarters  or, 
in  small  animals,  by  having  an  assistant  hold  the  patient  by  the 
hind  legs.  After  the  organ  is  returned  to  its  proper  position,  a 
mild,  antiseptic  agent  should  be  injected;  iodoform  is  very  useful 
for  this  purpose,  because  it  is  not  only  antiseptic  but  slightly  anaes- 
thetic, and  therefore  lessens  irritability  and  straining.  Keep  bowels 
open  by  administering  cathartics.  Straining  to  defecate  and  disten- 
tion of  the  intestines  tend  to  cause  a  recurrence  of  the  prolapse. 
If  parturition  is  near,  it  may  be  advisable-  to  empty  the  uterus. 
Bandages,  sutures,  trusses,  etc.,  are  of  little  use  unless  the  cause 
of  straining  is  eliminated.  Sometimes  the  bladder  is  carried  out 
within  the  prolapsed  vagina  (vesicovaginocele).    Urine  accumulates 


286  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

because  of  the  constriction  of  the  urethra,  and  must  be  removed  be- 
fore reposition  can  be  effected. 

Give  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  inversion  of  the  uterus. 

Causes :  Failure  of  the  os  uteri  to  close  after  parturition,  tardy 
involution  of  the  uterus,  and  retained  placenta  are  potent,  causative 
factors.  Sloping  floors,  close  confinement,  and  overfeeding  are 
contributory,  if  not  direct,  causes. 

Symptoms:  The  prolapse  may  be  partial  or  complete;  that  is, 
there  may  be  simply  a  beginning  invagination,  or  the  inversion  may 
be  complete  with  the  whole  uterus  turned  inside  out  and  hanging 
from  the  vulva.  The  walls  of  the  prolapsed  organ  are  continuous 
with  the  vagina  and  vulva,  and  there  is  more  or  less  displacement  of 
these  organs.  Occasionally  the  bladder  is  carried  forward  with  the 
floor  of  the  vagina.  Intestines  may  be  forced  through  the  pelvic 
cavity  into  the  inverted  uterus.  The  condition  may  be  further 
complicated  by  lacerations,  inflammatory  degenerations,  etc.,  of  the 
protruding  parts. 

Treatment :  Carefully  cleanse  and  disinfect  the  prolapsed  organ 
with  0.5  per  cent,  solution  of  phenol  in  normal  salt  solution.  Place 
the  patient  in  lateral  recumbency  with  the  posterior  parts  elevated. 
Remove  any  adherent  portions  of  placenta  and  replace  the  organ  by 
careful  manual  pressure.  If  the  uterus  is  badly  congested  it  may 
be  very  difficult  to  do  this.  The  congestion  may  be  overcome  by 
elevating  the  uterus  above  the  body  level  and  applying  a  pressure 
bandage,  beginning  at  the  free  extremity.  After  returning  the 
organ,  push  the  cornua  back  as  far  as  possible  with  the  clinched  fist 
and  inject  tepid,  sterile  water  to  complete  the  unfolding  of  the 
intussusception.  If  necessary,  administer  narcotics  to  prevent  ex- 
pulsive efforts.  Should  the  uterus  be  badly  wounded  or  necrotic, 
amputation  may  be  necessary.     (See  answer  to  following  question.) 

What  is  metrotomy?  When  is  it  indicated  and  how  should  it  be  per- 
formed ? 

Metrotomy  refers  to  the  incising  of  the  uterus,  IMetrectomj'^  is 
the  excision,  or  amputation,  of  the  uterus.  (]\Iany  persons  incor- 
rectly use  these  two  terms  synonymously.  Believing  that  the  inter- 
rogator refers  to  amputation  of  the  uterus,  the  foUoMdng  answer  is 
given.) 

Amputation  of  the  uterus  is  indicated  in  case  of  prolapse  when 
reposition  of  the  organ  is  impossible;  wlien  the  organ  is  badly  in- 
flamed, necrotic,  or  wounded. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  287 

The  prolapsed  organ  should  be  carefully  cleansed  and  disinfected. 
Make  an  incision  into  the  uterus  to  determine  whether  any  viscera 
extend  into  the  cavity.  Tightly  apply  an  elastic  ligature  around 
the  entire  organ  near  the  external  os.  Completely  sever  the  organ 
by  excising  it  about  three  inches  from  the  ligature.  Replace  the 
stump  of  the  organ  and  irrigate  the  vagina  daily  for  five  to  ten 
days,  when  the  necrotic  stump  should  come  away.  To  avoid  any 
danger  of  the  ligature  slipping,  it  is  safer  to  suture  the  uterus  in 
such  a  way  that  the  circulation  is  cut  off  from  the  stump.  The 
latter  is  a  more  surgical  procedure. 

State  the  difference  between  parturient  eclampsia  and  parturient 
paresis. 
These  two  diseases  usually  occur  soon  after  parturition,  although 
they  have  been  observed  at,  and  shortly  before,  this  act.  The  prin- 
cipal distinction  made  is  the  occurrence  of  tonic  and  clonic  spasms 
(especially  of  the  diaphragm)  in  parturient  eclampsia,  and  of  a 
comatose  condition  in  parturient  paresis.  The  former  disease  is  seen 
most  frequently  in  mares  and  the  latter  in  cows.  It  may  be  noted 
that  tonic  and  clonic  spasms  are  sometimes  seen  in  the  early  stages 
of  parturient  paresis,  but  they  soon  pass  away,  to  be  followed  by 
coma. 

Give  the  Schmidt  treatment  of  parturient  apoplexy. 

The  treatment,  as  originally  introduced  by  Schmidt  in  1897, 
consisted  of  the  introduction  into  the  udder  of  a  solution  of  potas- 
sium iodide,  mixed  with  atmospheric  air.  Later  investigators  found 
that  the  injection  of  air  alone  sufficed  to  bring  about  the  same  result. 

Observing  the  rules  of  asepsis,  firmly  distend  the  udder  by  inflat- 
ing it  with  air  forced  in  by  a  suitable  instrument.  The  air  should 
be  filtered  through  sterile  cotton  or  forced  through  an  antiseptic 
solution  to  rid  it  of  any  impurities.  As  a  rule,  a  few  hours  after  this 
treatment  the  cow  regains  her  feet  and  appears  perfectly  normal. 
If  this  does  not  occur  after  an  interval  of  three  to  six  hours,  inflate 
the  gland  again.  Some  practitioners  ligate  the  teat  after  inflation, 
but  this  is  seldom  necessary,  as  the  sphincter  of  the  teat  will  prevent 
the  air  from  escaping. 

Give  the  causes  and  treatment  of  puerperal  eclampsia  in  the  mare. 

The  cause  of  this  disease  is  not  known.  It  is  seen  following  the 
act  of  parturition  with  no  premonitory  symptoms.  Williams  men- 
tions the  frequent  occurrence  of  the  disease  in  mares  which  have 
been  suddenly  taken  from  pasture  to  stable  or  put  in  harness,  thus 


288  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

causing  maternal  anxiety  and  a  disturbance  of  the  central  nervous 
system. 

Treatment: — Keep  patient  with  her  foal  in  quiet,  comfortable 
quarters.  Bloodletting  is  beneficial  in  early  stages.  Control  spasms 
by  administering  large  doses  of  the  fluid  extract  of  belladonna  and 
cannabis  indica. 

Define  endometritis.     Give  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  acute 
endometritis. 

Endometritis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the 
uterus.    It  may  be  acute  or  chronic. 

Causes:  Retention  of  fetal  membranes  or  of  a  decomposed 
foetus;  infection  of  wounds  occurring  during  parturition  from  em- 
bryotomy operations  or  otherwise ;  introduction  of  infection  through 
careless  manipulations  of  attendants.  The  disease  very  often  fol- 
lows a  prolapse  of  the  uterus  for  obvious  reasons.  In  the  case  of  a 
mare  which  recently  came  under  the  observation  of  the  writer,  the 
cause  was  attributed  to  the  repeated  attentions  forced  upon  her  by 
a  cryptorchid  stallion  which  consorted  with  her  in  pasture. 

Symptoms:  Fever,  tenderness  of  the  abdomen,  stiffness  of  the 
gait  due  to  laminitis,  which  is  usually  present,  a  reddish-gray,  floc- 
culent,  foetid  discharge  from  the  vulva,  a  large  amount  of  the  same 
material  in  the  uterus,  thickening  of  the  uterine  walls,  increased 
frequency  of  pulse  and  respiration.  The  patient  may  remain  in  a 
standing  or  a  recumbent  position. 

Treatment :  Cleanse  the  uterine  cavity  by  irrigating  with  warm, 
sterile  water.  Be  sure  to  remove  all  fragments  of  placenta  and 
accumulated  discharges;  continue  the  irrigation  until  the  expelled 
water  is  clear.  Then  inject  two  or  three  gallons  of  a  1-1000  solution 
of  potassium  permanganate.  Repeat  this  medication  daily  until 
the  discharge  changes  to  a  healthy  mucus,  then  gradually  withdraw 
treatment.  If  the  condition  of  the  patient  requires  them,  stimulants 
and  antipyretics  such  as  digitalis,  quinine,  and  alcohol  may  be  given. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  leucorrhoea. 

The  term  ' '  leucorrhoea, ' '  meaning  ' '  white  iiow, ' '  is  applied  to  a 
whitish,  viscid  discharge  from  the  vagina  and  uterine  cavity.  It  is 
symptomatic  of  chronic  inflammation  of  these  parts  (chronic  endo- 
metritis). The  discharge  is  usually  intermittent,  occurring  during 
micturition  or  when  straining. 

The  appetite  may  be  good,  but  emaciation  advances.  The  mucous 
membrane  of  the  genital  canal  is  pale  or,  in  some  cases,  red  and 
roughened  by  granulations. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  289 

Treatment:  Depends  upon  the  cause.  In  general,  the  affected 
parts  should  be  irrigated  with  warm,  sterile  water  until  it  flows  out 
clear;  then  with  an  astringent,  antiseptic  solution,  such  as  potas- 
sium permanganate,  1-1000,  or  lysol,  1  per  cent.  Iodoform  is 
highly  efficient  in  this  disease.  A  gelatine  capsule  containing  two 
or  three  drachms  of  this  agent  can  be  carried  into  the  uterine  cavity 
and  there  opened  and  the  contents  scattered  over  the  diseased 
membrane.  Treatment  must  be  persistent  and  repeated  daily  until 
a  healthy  condition  is  obtained.    General  tonics  are  useful. 

How  may  rupture  of  the  uterus  during  labor  be  recognized  ? 

Small  ruptures  may  pass  unnoticed  for  a  few  days  after  par- 
turition, when  the  symptoms  of  septic  peritonitis  lead  the  operator 
to  make  a  manual  exploration  and  discover  the  opening.  An  ex- 
tensive rupture  occurring  during  labor  is  often  followed  by  collapse 
and  death  from  hemorrhage.  The  escape  of  the  fetal  fluids  into  the 
peritoneal  cavity  likewise  results  in  collapse  and  death.  If  death 
is  not  sudden,  the  animal  ceases  straining,  the  pulse  becomes  small 
and  imperceptible,  and  a  cold  perspiration  covers  the  body. 

Give  the  treatment  of  laceration  of  the  cervix  uteri. 

Small  lacerations  require  little  or  no  attention.  Extensive 
lacerations  should  be  treated  antiseptically.  Adjust  the  vaginal 
speculum  and  with  long  dressing  forceps,  holding  pledgets  of 
cotton,  remove  all  discharges.  In  the  same  manner  swab  the  edges 
of  the  wounds  with  proper  medical  agents,  such  as  Tr.  iodine, 
iodoform,  etc. 

Define  lochia  and  give  its  treatment. 

Lochia  is  the  term  applied  to  the  uterine  discharge  occurring  for 
a  period  of  a  few  hours  or  a  few  days  following  parturition.  It 
consists  of  blood  and  fragments  of  the  uterine  mucosa  or  of  the 
placental  villi,  which  must  be  expelled  before  the  uterus  can  resume 
its  normal  state.  It  is  a  purely  physiological  condition  and  requires 
no  treatment  unless  infection  occurs,  when  the  condition  is  no 
longer  normal  but  pathological. 

What  is  meant  by  lochia?    Is  lochia  common  in  domestic  animals? 

See  answer  to  preceding  question.     Lochia  is  common  in  all 
domestic  animals,  but  is  more  noticeable  in  some  than  others.    In 
the  mare  and  cat  it  is  very  scant,  whereas  in  the  cow,  sheep,  and 
bitch  it  is  more  abundant. 
19 


290  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  the  treatment  of  postpartum  hemorrhage. 

Slight  hemorrhage  requires  little  or  no  attention.  Hasten  in- 
volution of  the  organ  and  at  the  same  time  check  the  hemorrhage 
by  the  introduction  of  cold  water  or  ice.  Remove  coagulated  masses 
of  blood  and  administer  ergot  or  other  stimulants  to  favor  involu- 
tion. Severe  hemorrhage  should  be  treated  by  an  intravenous 
infusion  of  normal  salt  solution. 

Define  and  describe  (a)  vaginismus,  (b)  vaginitis. 

(a)  A  painful  spasm  of  the  vagina  due  to  local  hypersesthesia. 

(b)  Inflammation  of  the  vagina. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  vaginitis. 

Causes :  Injuries  during  the  act  of  partui'ition  and  entrance  of 
infection;  careless  manipulations  in  assisting  dystocia  cases;  irri- 
tant drugs  used  as  vaginal  or  uterine  douches;  uterine  discharges 
passing  over  the  vaginal  mucous  membrane  may,  and  usually  do, 
irritate  the  same. 

Symptoms:  Swelling  and  inflanunation  of  the  vaginal  mucous 
membrane  and  a  purulent,  leucorrhoeal  discharge.  Defecation  and 
urination  are  often  difficult,  owing  to  the  pain  in  the  parts.  If 
long  standing,  ulceration  and  necrosis  may  be  present. 

Treatment:  Irrigate  the  vagina  with  warm,  mild,  antiseptic 
solutions ;  2  per  cent,  phenol  or  1  per  cent,  lysol  is  useful.  In  mild 
cases  use  a  solution  of  sodium  bicarbonate.  In  ulceration  use  silver 
nitrate  or  Tr.  iodine. 

Describe  the  symptoms  and  give  the  treatment  of  contagious  vaginitis. 
Granular  venereal  disease,  or  infectious  granular  vaginitis,  is 
a  disease  of  cows  which  is  especially  characterized  by  the  formation 
of  small  granular  elevations  in  the  vulvar  and  posterior  vaginal 
mucosa.  In  addition,  swelling  of  the  vulvo-vaginal  mucosa  and 
a  mucopurulent  discharge  is  observed.  This  disease  is  said  by  many 
good  authorities  to  be  the  chief  cause  of  the  so-called  "infectious 
abortion,"  and  to  be  very  extensively  spread  in  this  country. 
The  importance  of  the  disease  depends  upon  its  many  complications, 
which  are:  abortion,  retained  placenta,  septic  metritis,  septicivmia, 
pyaemia,  pyometra,  cystic  ovaries,  persistent  corpora  lutea,  etc. 

Treatment:  Separate  the  well  from  the  disea.sed;  disinfect 
stables;  cleanse  vulva  and  vagina  of  all  discharges  and  disin- 
fect these  parts  with  a  0.5  per  cent,  solution  of  phenol.  It  would 
be  a  wise  prophylactic  m3asure  to  disinfect  the  sheath  and  penis 
of  each  bull  which  has  covered  affected  cows. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  291 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  puerperal  septicaemia. 

Causes :  Septic  iiitiammation  of  the  uterus ;  retaiued  placenta ; 
retention  of  a  decomposed  foetus;  infection  of  wounds  occurring 
during  labor. 

Symptoms :  Four  or  five  days  after  parturition,  we  notice  fever, 
rapid  pulse  and  rapid  respiration,  fetid  discharge  from  vulva,  ex- 
treme weakness,  lessened  milk  secretion,  constipation  alternating 
with  diarrhoea,  death  in  a  short  time  (24  hours  to  a  few  days).  In 
non-fatal  cases  pytemic  arthritis  may  supervene. 

Treatment:  Usually  fruitless.  Thoroughly  cleanse  and  disin- 
fect the  septic  genital  tract.  Quinine,  which  stands  preeminently 
the  best  drug  in  septic  fevers,  should  be  administered  in  large  doses 
(one  ounce,  twice  daily  if  necessary). 

Write  a  prescription  for  retained  placenta  in  the  cow. 

The  handling  of  retained  placenta  is  principally  mechanical, 
although  in  cases  accompanied  by  grave  constitutional  disturbances 
the  following  may  be  useful: 

Tr.  digitalis    5  vj 

Quininse  sulphatis g  ij 

(Ac.   sulphurici    qa.) 

Spts.  vini  rect.  qs.  ad Oj 

M. 

Sig. — Give  one  ounce  every  4  hours. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  acute  mastitis  in  the  cow. 

Causes :  In  practically  every  case  mastitis  originates  from  infec- 
tion, which  gains  entrance  through  the  teats,  wounds,  or  by  the 
blood-  and  lymph-stream.  As  predisposing  or  accessory  factors  the 
following  may  be  considered :  cold,  trauma,  retained  placenta,  filthy 
surroundings,  careless  and  irregular  milking,  and  inflation  of  the 
udder  in  the  treatment  of  milk  fever. 

Symptoms:  One  or  all  four  quarters  of  the  udder  may  be  in- 
volved. Heat,  tenderness,  redness,  and  swelling  are  marked  from 
the  first.  There  is  a  suspension  of  the  milk  secretion  in  the  affected 
quarters.  The  milk  which  is  present  in  the  gland  is  clumpy  and 
may  be  streaked  with  blood.  Fever,  loss  of  appetite,  constipation, 
and  general  depression  show  the  systemic  disturbance.  Complica- 
tions that  may  aggravate  the  condition  are  gangrene,  abscess  for- 
mation, pyaemia,  septicaemia,  atrophy  of  the  gland,  and  pyaemic 
arthritis. 

Treatment:  Hot  fomentations  and  massage  increase  leucocy- 
tosis  and  are  conceded  to  be  the  most  valuable  of  all  treatments. 


292  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Frequent  milking,  suspensory  bandages,  external  application  of 
disinfectants,  intramammary  injections  of  same,  and  many  other 
measui'es  have  their  advocates.  Increased  activity  of  the  alimentary 
tract  should  be  stimulated  by  a  laxative  diet  and  the  use  of  areco- 
line,  or  eserine  and  pilocarpine.  Certain  drugs,  such  as  camphor 
and  turpentine,  which  are  eliminated  in  the  milk,  are  useful  because 
of  their  disinfectant  action,  and  may  be  given  in  full  doses.  Abscess 
formation  and  gangrene  call  for  surgical  interference. 

What  are  the  causes  of  colic  in  pregnant  animals  ?     Give  treatment. 

The  etiology  of  "true"  colic  occurring  in  pregnancy  would  be 
little  different  from  that  in  a  non-pregnant  animal;  likewise  the 
treatment,  except  that  precautions  should  be  taken  to  avoid  drugs 
which  might  empty  the  uterus.  "False"  colic  may  be  observed  in 
torsion  of  the  uterus  {q.v.). 

Why  are  rickets  and  osteomalacia  frequently  observed  in  pregnant 
animals?     Give  treatment. 

These  diseases,  in  any  animal,  can  usually  be  traced  to  a  de- 
ficiency in  the  quantity  or  the  quality  of  the  food.  A  lack  of  lime 
salts,  especially  the  phosphate  of  calcium,  has  long  been  recognized 
as  a  potent  etiological  factor.  Add  to  this  the  extra  demand  made 
upon  the  pregnant  animal  by  the  developing  foetus,  as  well  as  a  low- 
ered vitality  from  prolonged  lactation,  and  it  is  entirely  obvious 
why  these  diseases  are  frequently  observed  in  pregnancy. 

Treatment :  Improve  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  food.  The 
regular  administration  of  calcium  phosphate  in  the  food  is  very 
beneficial.  In  addition,  nux  vomica  and  potassium  iodide  may  be 
given  with  good  results. 

Mention  two  causes  of  hernia  of  the  bladder  into  the  vaginal  canal. 
Give  procedure  for  reducing  the  hernia. 

This  very  rare  condition  may  occur  by  reason  of  a  rupture  in 
the  floor  of  the  vagina,  or  the  organ  may  become  everted  through 
a  relaxed  urethral  opening  when  the  intra-abdominal  pressure  is 
increased  by  violent  expulsive  efforts. 

In  the  former  condition  replace  the  organ  and  suture  the  rent  in 
the  vaginal  floor,  taking  care  to  bring  the  peritoneal  surfaces  of  the 
wound  together.  In  the  latter,  gentle  pressure  should  be  directed 
toward  returning  the  everted  organ.  After  replacement  is  effected, 
allay  irritation  by  irrigating  the  bladder  with  warm,  normal  salt 
solution  and  prevent  straining  by  the  use  of  local  or  general  anaes- 
thetics. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  293 

Give  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  puerperal  laminitis  of  the 
mare. 

Causes :  Occurs  in  connection  with  endometritis  due  to  retention 
of  a  part  of  the  placenta.  Toxins,  formed  as  a  result  of  the  bac- 
terial decomposition,  are  absorbed  and  laminitis  is  produced  through 
metastasis. 

Symptoms:  Same  as  acute  laminitis  from  other  causes,  and,  in 
addition,  the  symptoms  of  endometritis  are  observed.  (See  acute 
laminitis,  p.  255,  and  acute  endometritis,  p.  288.) 

Treatment:  Remove  all  placental  fragments  from  the  uterine 
cavity.  Irrigate  the  cavity  with  mild,  antiseptic  solutions  such  as 
lysol,  carbolic  acid,  and  potassium  permanganate.  Powdered  iodo- 
form is  useful.     (See  treatment  of  acute  endometritis,  p.  288.) 

Name  some  of  the  principal  causes  of  sterility  in  (a)  the  male,  (b) 
the  female. 

(a)  Cryptorchidism,  idleness  and  overfeeding,  masturbation, 
orchitis  and  epididymitis,  hydrocele,  and  excessive  sexual  use. 

(b)  Cystic  ovaries,  emaciation,  overwork,  metritis,  occlusion 
of  the  OS  uteri,  and  senile  atrophy  of  the  sexual  organs. 

What  is  sterility?  Name  some  causes  of  sterility  and  give  the  treat- 
ment. 

Sterility  is  the  inability  to  reproduce  young. 

Causes:  In  the  male,  sterility  may  be  due  to  cryptorchidism, 
previous  attack  of  orchitis  or  epididymitis.  No  treatment  will  over- 
come sterility  due  to  these  causes.  Idleness  and  overfeeding  often 
lead  to  impotency.  The  treatment  for  these  conditions  is  sug- 
gested by  the  cause.  Onanism  may  cause  sterility.  This  vice  may 
be  corrected  by  proper  feeding  and  exercise.  A  shield,  so  adjusted 
over  the  sheath  as  to  cause  pain  when  the  penis  is  protruded,  will 
prohibit  erection  and  thus  prevent  masturbation. 

In  the  female,  sterility  is  commonly  caused  by  cystic  degener- 
ation of  the  ovaries.  These  cysts  are  sometimes  crushed  by  manual 
pressure,  either  per  rectum  or  per  vaginam,  but  there  is  a  tendency 
to  recurrence  which  leads  to  a  fibrous  degeneration.  Metritis  is  an 
etiological  factor.  Acute  metritis  usually  responds  to  local  treat- 
ment (antiseptic  irrigation  with  potassium  permanganate,  1-1000), 
but  chronic  metritis,  pyometra,  requires  long-continued  treatment. 
The  OS  uteri  must  be  dilated  and  the  uterine  cavity  irrigated  daily 
with  proper  antiseptic  solutions.  The  introduction  of  iodoform 
powder  in  a  gelatine  capsule  is  useful.    Occlusion  of  the  os  uteri  is 


294  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

often  advanced  as  a  cause  of  sterility,  but  in  most  cases  is  over- 
estimated. 

Name  three  pathological  conditions  of  the  ovary  which  may  cause 
sterility. 
Tuberculosis,  tumors,  and  cystic  degeneration. 

Diseases  of  the  New-born 

Name  four  infectious  diseases  of  the  new-born  and  four  non-infectious. 

Infectious :  Omphalophlebitis,  tetanus  neonatorum,  white  scours, 
septic  pleuropneumonia. 

Non-infectious:  Asphyxia,  umbilic  hemorrhage,  umbilical  her- 
nia, retention  of  meconium. 

Name  three  diseases  of  the  new-born  and  give  the  treatment  of  each. 

See  answers  to  succeeding  questions. 

Give  method  of  treatment  for  the  resuscitation  of  ein  asphyxiated  new- 
born colt. 
Apply  traction  and  relaxation  alternately  upon  the  tongue ;  sus- 
pend animal  by  hind  legs  to  dislodge  mucus;   induce   artificial 
respiration  by   alternately  compressing  and  relaxing  the  chest; 
alternating  electric  current  may  be  used  if  at  hand. 

Give  the  causes  and  the  treatment  of  diarrhoea  in  the  new-born. 

Causes:  Overfeeding,  improper  food,  milk  from  overheated  or 
exhausted  mothers,  unsanitary  feeding  utensils,  and  infection.  In- 
fectious diarrha?a  (''white  scours"),  a  specific  disease,  is  due  to 
infection  of  the  navel. 

Treatment:  Allow  young  to  nurse  frequently.  If  artificially 
fed,  sterilize  feeding  utensils  and  give  food  of  unquestionable  qual- 
ity as  regards  bacterial  content,  etc.  Give  a  mild,  soothing  cathar- 
tic, such  as  castor  oil,  and  follow,  if  necessary,  with  small  repeated 
doses  of  bismuth  subnitrate.  Lime  water  and  milk  in  the  proportion 
of  1 :  4  is  an  excellent  diet  for  artificially-fed  animals.  Clean,  sani- 
tary quarters  should  be  provided.  "White  scours,"  due  to  navel 
infection,  requires  local  antiseptic  treatment  in  addition  to  the 
above. 

Give  the  causes  of  umbilic  infection. 

The  cord  may  be  infected  in  its  passage  through  the  vulvo- 
vaginal canal,  or  later  the  stump  of  the  ruptured  cord  may  come  in 
contact  with  the  earth,  soiled  bedding,  urine,  etc. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  295 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  umbilic  hernia. 

Causes:  Failure  of  the  umbilie  ring  in  the  abdominal  floor  to 
close  as  it  normally  should.  This  condition  is  a  congenital  defect 
which  seems  to  be  hereditary.  Rarely  is  the  defect  acquired  or 
accidental. 

Symptoms:  The  presence  of  a  reducible  or  irreducible,  painless 
tumor  in  the  region  of  the  navel,  which  may  vary  in  size  from  that 
of  a  hen's  egg  to  a  child's  head,  or  larger.  It  is  usually  soft  and 
fluctuating  and  can  be  pushed  through  the  circular  or  elliptical- 
shaped  opening  in  the  abdominal  floor,  but  immediately  returns 
when  the  pressure  is  released.  If  strangulation,  which  rarely  occurs, 
is  present,  the  tumor  may  be  irreducible. 

Treatment:  IMany  plans  have  been  tried,  such  as  ligation,  ban- 
dages, trusses,  topical  applications,  clamps  and  sutures,  but  the  last 
named  has  the  preference.  Small  hernii£  often  disappear  spon- 
taneously before  the  animal  is  three  or  four  months  old.  Best  plan 
of  treatment  is  to  secure  the  patient  on  its  back  and  give  a  general 
anassthetic;  shave  and  disinfect  the  skin  over  the  hernia;  make  an 
incision  through  the  hernial  sac  and  expose  the  ring;  bring  the 
margins  of  the  ring  together  with  strong,  deeply-inserted  sutures 
of  silk  or  catgut ;  close  the  skin  wound  and  apply  an  antiseptic  pack 
over  wound,  holding  it  in  place  with  body  bandage.  Small  hernioB 
may  be  sutured  similarly  without  making  an  incision  through  the 
skin,  but  by  passing  sutures  through  the  whole  sac  near  its  base. 
These  sutures  may  be  so  arranged  that  the  sac  is  ligated  and 
sloughed  away. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  inflammation  of  the  um- 
bilic cord  (omphalophlebitis). 

Causes :  Infection  due  to  contact  with  soiled  litter,  fgeces,  urine, 
etc.  Manipulations  of  the  cord  by  laymen  or  others  without  observ- 
ing aseptic  precautions.  Needless  or  faulty  ligation  of  the  cord. 
Flies  also  carry  infection. 

Symptoms:  The  disease,  which  occurs  a  few  hours  after  birth, 
may  remain  local  (omphalitis)  or  extend  to  the  umbilical  vein 
(omphalophlebitis)  and  result  in  septicopyaemia.  If  local,  swelling 
and  tenderness  of  the  navel  region  are  noted;  a  thin,  watery,  or 
blood-tinged  discharge  which  later  contains  pus  exudes ;  little  or  no 
systemic  disturbance  is  observed.  Later,  two  to  ten  days,  if  the 
inflammation  extends  to  deeper  parts,  a  sudden,  severe,  general 
disturbance  takes  place;  this  is  manifested  by  fever,  inappeteney, 
lameness  due  to  septic  arthritis,  painful  swellings  about  the  artieu- 


296  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

lations,  abscess  formation  in  various  parts,  such  as  the  liver,  kidneys, 
spleen,  lungs,  etc.  Therefore  the  symptoms  may  be  many  and 
varied. 

Treatment:  This  disease  is  more  easily  prevented  than  cured. 
Local  disinfection  is  the  best  and  only  measure  necessary.  Remove 
all  necrotic  tissue,  thoroughly  cleanse  and  apply  dry  antiseptic 
powders  to  the  stump  of  the  cord.  If  the  infection  has  become 
generalized,  all  treatment  is  practically  hopeless,  but  local  disin- 
fection should  be  energetically  effected.  The  various  methods  of 
increasing  the  opsonic  index  by  injections  of  antistreptococcic  sera, 
vaccines,  etc.,  may  be  useful. 

Give  the  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  foal-lameness. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

Give  the  treatment  of  imperforated  anus. 

Make  an  incision  through  the  skin  where  the  anus  should  be, 
down  upon  the  mass  of  meconium  in  the  rectum. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  of  persistence  of  the  urachus. 

Symptoms :  All,  or  part,  of  the  urine,  depending  upon  whether 
the  urethra  is  open  or  not,  is  discharged  through  the  navel.  Navel 
infection  with  omphalophlebitis  may  follow. 

Treatment :  If  the  urethra  is  imperforate,  attempt  opening  same, 
then  apply  desiccating  and  astringent  antiseptics,  such  as  Tr.  iodine, 
or  actual  cautery  to  the  navel.  If  the  urethra  cannot  be  opened, 
the  prognosis  is  bad,  as  infection  will  sooner  or  later  enter  the  navel 
and  produce  fatal  results. 

What  is  cyanosis  in  the  new-born?     Give  cause  and  symptoms. 

A  blueness  of  the  skin  and  raucous  membranes,  due  to  cardiac 
malformation  causing  insufficient  oxygenation  of  the  blood. 

Cause:  Failure  of  the  foramen  ovale  (a  fetal  structure,  consist- 
ing of  an  opening  between  the  auricles)  to  close  at  birth. 

Symptoms:  Extreme  weakness,  rapid  respiration,  and  a  bluish 
coloration  of  the  skin  and  visible  mucous  membranes. 

Describe  the  external  sexual  organs  in  a  case  of  hermaphrodism. 

Varies  greatly  in  diHereiit  cases.  In  general,  u  rudimentary 
penis  or  enlarged  clitoris  projects  backward  or  downward  from  the 
lower  commissure  of  a  vulva.  The  mammary  gland  is  moderately 
developed  in  its  normal  position  or  may  resemble  a  scrotum  and 
contain  undeveloped  testicles. 


MATERIA  MEDICA  AND  THERAPEUTICS* 

Define  (a)  materia  medica,  (b)  therapeutics. 

(a)  Materia  medica  treats  of  the  derivation,  natural  history, 
phj^sical  and  chemical  properties,  physiological  actions,  doses  and 
tests  of  purity  of  drugs. 

(b)  Therapeutics  is  that  branch  of  knowledge  which  treats  of 
the  application  of  all  means — medicinal  or  otherwise — to  the  cure 
of  disease  or  relief  of  pain. 

By  what  modes  are  medicines  introduced  into  the  organism? 

1.  By  intravenous  injection, 

2.  By  inhalation. 

3.  By  subcutaneous  injection. 

4.  By  intratracheal  injection. 

5.  By  the  mouth  (orally). 

6.  By  the  rectum. 

7.  By  inunction. 

Compare  as  to  size  of  dose  and  length  of  time  required  for  action,  the 
following  modes  of  administering  medicine :  (a)  by  mouth, 
(b)  by  rectum,  (c)  by  intravenous  injection,  (d)  by  hypo- 
dermic injection. 

(a)  One-half  the  rectal  dose,  four  to  six  times  the  intravenous 
dose,  and  twice  the  hypodermic  dose.  Absorption  more  rapid  than 
from  the  rectum  and  slower  than  by  intravenous  and  hypodermic 
methods. 

(b)  Twice  the  oral'  dose.  Absorption  is  slower  and  more  imper- 
fect than  by  the  mouth. 

(c)  One-half  to  one-third  the  hypodermic  and  one-fourth  to  one- 
sixth  the  oral  dose.    Absorption  immediate. 

(d)  One-half  the  oral  dose.  Absorption  quicker  than  all  others 
except  the  intravenous  method. 

This  comparison  is  made  with  alkaloidal  drugs,  as  they  are  the 
ones  usually  given  intravenously  and  subcutaneously. 

What  is  meant  by  synergistic  remedial  agents?     Describe  fully. 

Agents  which  assist  or  intensify  the  action  of  others.  Belladonna 
promotes  the  action  of  nux  vomica,  mercury  and  the  iodides  favor 

*  Unless  otherwise  stated  all  questions  relate  to  the  horse. 

297 


298  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

the  action  of  silver  as  a  waste  producer,  the  alkalies  favor  the 
action  of  sulphur  compounds,  both  chemically  and  physiologically. 

What  is  meant  by  (a)  the  physiological  action  of  a  drug,  (b)  the  toxic 
dose  of  a  drug,  (c)  the  lethal  dose  of  a  drug? 

(a)  The  definite  and  limited  action  of  a  drug  upon  some  part  of 
the  organism,  intended  to  antagonize  or  overcome  a  particular  patho- 
logical condition. 

(b)  A  dose  sufficient  to  produce  poisoning, 
(e)  A  fatal  dose. 

Into  what  classes  are  cathartics  divided?     Name  one  cathartic  of  each 
class  and  state  how  it  acts. 

1.  Laxatives :  olive  oil  acts  mechanically  and  slightly  stimulates 
peristalsis. 

2.  Simple  purgatives :  calomel  stimulates  secretion  and  peristal- 
tic action. 

3.  Drastic  purgatives:  croton  oil  greatly  increases  peristaltic 
action  and  secretions. 

4.  Hydragogue  purgatives :  magnesium  sulphate  abstracts  water 
from  the  blood  by  stimulating  secretion. 

5.  Cholagogue  purgatives:  sodium  phosphate  increases  the  flow 
of  bile,  which  stimulates  peristalsis. 

How  do  sedatives  act?     What  is  the  danger  of  the  excessive  use  of 
sedatives  ? 

Sedatives  act  by  depressing  protoplasm  and  lowering  functional 
activity.  They  allay  nervous  irritability  by  diminishing  the  con- 
duction of  impressions  to  the  brain.  Their  excessive  use  may  cause 
the  cardiac  and  respiratory  actions  to  cease.  A  long-continued  use 
of  sedatives  may  lead  to  alarming  nervous  irritability  if  suddenly 
discontinued  or  if  the  dosage  is  not  increased. 

Give  the  physiological  actions  and  the  therapeutic  uses  of  aconite. 

Aconite  decreases  the  cardiac  rate  and  force,  lowers  arterial  ten- 
sion and  temperature.  The  respiratory  centre  is  depressed.  It  is  a 
diaphoretic  and  diuretic;  depresses  the  functional  activity  of  the 
perceptive  centres  in  the  brain,  the  sensory  side  of  the  spinal  cord, 
and  the  peripheral  sensory  nerves. 

It  is  indicated  in  all  affections  characterized  by  a  liigli  resisting 
pulse  and  an  elevated  temperature;  is  useful  in  acute  pharyngitis, 
laryngitis,  pleurisy,  peritonitis,  encephalitis,  lamiuitis,  enteritis, 
and  mammitis ;  also  used  in  acute  muscular  or  articular  I'heumatism, 
and  as  a  sedative  in  cardiac  disturbance. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  299 

What  are  the  uses  of  tincture  of  aconite?     Give  the  dose  of  tincture  of 
aconite  (a)  for  the  horse,  (b)  for  the  dog.     How  long  should 
maximum  doses  be  given? 
See  answer  to  preceding  question. 

It  is  given  in  doses  of  15  minims  to  the  horse  and  2  minims  to 
the  dog,  every  15  minutes  for  two  hours,  and  afterwards  30  minims 
for  the  horse  and  3  minims  for  the  dog,  every  hour,  until  the  tem- 
perature and  pulse-rate  are  lowered.  The  drug  should  be  used 
with  caution  and  the  pulse  carefully  watched.  The  maximum  dose 
for  the  horse,  %  to  1%  drachms,  for  the  dog,  2  to  8  minims,  should 
not  be  repeated  without  first  examining  the  pulse  and  heart. 

Give  the  indications  for  barium  chloride.    State  the  dose  according  to 
the  method  of  administration. 
Barium  chloride  is  indicated  in  obstinate  constipation  of  the 
horse  and  in  colics  where  a  quick-acting  cathartic  is  needed. 
Dose :  7  to  15  grains,  intravenously ;  1  to  3  drachms  per  os. 

Name  the  drugs  that  exert  the  greatest  effect  on  glandular  structures. 

Pilocarpine,  arecoline,  belladonna,   calomel,   potassium  iodide, 

alcohol,  ammonia,  antimony  and  potassium  tartrate,  aloes,  apomor- 

phiue,   ipecac,   camphor,   opium,  spirits  nitrous  ether,   potassium 

nitrate,  etc. 

Name  the  more  common  preparations  of  mercury.     State  the  actions, 
uses  and  the  doses  of  each. 

1.  Unguentum  hydrargyri:  Parasiticide,  stimulant,  antiseptic, 
and  resolvent.  Used  externally  for  mange,  lice,  ringworm,  small 
exostoses,  etc. 

2.  Hydrargyri  iodidum  rubrum:  Resolvent  and  pustulant, 
counterirritant.  Used  externally  for  splints,  spavins,  ringbones, 
chronic  tendinitis,  enlarged  bursae,  enlarged  joints,  chronic  laryn- 
gitis, etc. 

3.  Hydrargyri  ehloridum  mite:  Laxative,  cathartic,  diuretic, 
antiseptic,  alterative  and  vermifuge;  externally,  desiccant,  anti- 
parasiticide,  and  antiseptic.  Used  in  gastritis;  icterus  due  to  con- 
stipation, catarrh  of  the  duodenum  or  hepatic  congestion;  and 
influenza.  Used  in  combination  with  santonin  for  intestinal  worms. 
Externally,  it  is  used  in  chronic  eczema,  itching  of  the  skin,  and 
thrush.    Dose,  ^  to  1  drachm. 

4.  Hydrargj^ri  ehloridum  corrosivum :  Corrosive,  irritant  poison, 
alterative,  antiseptic,  and  hepatic  stimulant.  Used  externally,  in 
strength  varying  from  1-500  to  1-10,000,   as  an   antiseptic   for 


300  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

wounds,  quittors,  fistulous  withers,  etc.  Used  as  a  slougliing  agent 
in  fibrous  growths.  In  endometritis,  a  solution  of  1-10,000  is  used 
as  a  douche. 

Describe  the  medicinal  treatment  of  pneumonia. 

In  the  congestive  stage,  veratrum  and  aconite  in  full  doses. 
Counterirritants  such  as  mustard  on  the  chest-wall  may  relieve  the 
patient.    Active  friction  followed  with  bandages  on  the  legs. 

In  the  stage  of  hepatization,  support  the  heart  with  digitalis, 
alcohol,  etc.  Reduce  the  temperature,  if  excessive,  with  aconite, 
quinine  sulphate,  etc.  Give  mild  laxatives,  such  as  Glauber's  salts, 
calomel,  or  linseed  oil ;  alkaline  diuretics,  as  potassium  nitrate. 

In  the  stage  of  resolution,  give  stimulating  expectorants,  such  as 
ammonium  chloride  and  ammonium  carbonate.  The  convalescent 
period  is  shortened  by  the  use  of  tonics,  such  as  nux  vomica,  arsenic, 
etc. 

Give  the  treatment  of  tetanus. 

Surgically  remove  tissue  surrounding  the  point  of  infection  or 
thoroughly  cauterize  same  and  treat  daily  with  strong  disinfectants. 
Phenol  is  best  for  this  purpose.  Keep  the  patient  in  a  quiet  place. 
The  use  of  antitoxin  as  a  therapeutic  agent  is  still  suh  judice.  By 
most  authorities  it  is  considered  valueless  in  this  connection. 
Attempts  to  control  spasms  may  be  made  with  potassium  bromide, 
given  in  four-ounce  doses  every  four  hours.  Morphine,  chloral, 
or  lobelia  may  assist.  Rectal  or  nasal  feeding  may  help  in  nourish- 
ing the  patient.    Saline  laxatives  to  secure  free  elimination. 

Describe  the  treatment  of  influenza  in  its  simple  form. 

A  laxative  condition  of  the  bowels  should  be  secured  by  feeding 
bran-mashes  and  administering  calomel.  Stimulants  such  as  liquor 
ammonium  acetatis  or  ammonium  carbonate  are  valuable.  If  the 
fever  is  high,  quinine,  acetanilide  and  antipyrine  are  important 
antipyretics  which  can  be  used.  In  oedema  of  the  extremities,  potas- 
sium nitrate  is  indicated.  Support  a  weak  heart  with  digitalis, 
camphor,  or  strychnine.  Counterirritants  on  the  chest  and  throat 
may  be  useful.    Treat  complications  symptomatically. 

Name  four  alkalies.    Give  the  action  and  the  uses  of  alkalies. 

Potassium,  sodium,  lithium,  and  ammonium. 

Actions:  The  salts  of  potassium  are  irritants,  caustics,  diuretics, 
antacids,  alteratives,  and  antipyretics.  Potassium  nitrate  is  useful 
in  dropsical  effusions.     Potassium  bromide  is  a  nerve  depressant, 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  301 

useful  in  spasms  aud  nervous  excitement.  Potassium  hydroxide  is  a 
caustic  used  on  warts  and  tumors  and  to  prevent  the  growth  of 
horns  on  cattle.  Potassium  chlorate  is  an  antiseptic  which  is  useful 
in  pharyngitis  and  stomatitis.  Potassium  iodide  is  used  as  an  altera- 
tive in  actinomycosis  and  other  chronic  conditions. 

The  salts  of  sodum  are  irritants,  caustics,  diuretics,  cathartics, 
and  alteratives.  Sodium  bicarbonate  is  useful  in  gastric  and  intes- 
tinal catarrh.  Sodium  bromide  is  used  same  as  potassium  bromide. 
Sodium  chloride  is  used  intravenously  in  hemorrhage,  anaemia,  and 
collapse,  also  in  gastro-intestinal  catarrh.  Sodium  sulphate  is  a  laxa- 
tive which  is  serviceable  in  gastro-intestinal  catarrh,  serous  exu- 
dates, and  GBdemas.  Sodium  hyposulphite  is  used  as  an  antacid  and 
antiseptic  in  gastric  tympany.  Sodium  hydroxide  is  used  same  as 
potassium  hydroxide. 

The  salts  of  lithium  are  diuretics  which  are  used  in  uric  acid 
calculi  for  their  solvent  action;  also  used  in  rheumatism. 

The  salts  of  ammonium  are  stimulants,  expectorants,  diapho- 
retics, antipyretics,  diuretics,  vesicants,  irritants,  antacids,  etc. 
Ammonium  carbonate  is  used  as  an  antacid  in  colic  and  tympanites, 
as  a  circulatory  and  respiratory  stimulant  and  a  stimulating  expec- 
torant in  the  third  stage  of  pneumonia,  in  bronchitis,  emphysema, 
and  as  a  heart  stimulant  in  collapse.  Ammonium  chloride  is  a  stimu- 
lant expectorant  used  in  catarrhal  bronchitis  and  pneumonia.  Aqua 
ammonia  is  an  antacid  useful  in  tympanites  and  externally  in 
liniments. 

What  are  the  general  actions  of  opium?    Give  the  dose  of  opium  for 
the  horse,  the  cow  and  the  dog. 
Opium  is  analgesic,  hypnotic,  diaphoretic,  antispasmodic,  and 
narcotic ;  also  cardiac  and  respiratory  depressant,  after  brief  stimu- 
lation. 

Dose  of  powdered  opium  for  the  horse,  20  to  90  grains ;  for  the 
cow,  1  to  2  drachms;  for  the  dog,  I/4  to  3  grains. 

State  the  source  and  the  uses  of  opium. 

Opium  is  obtained  in  Asia  ]\Iinor  from  the  unripe  capsule  of 
Papaver  somniferum,  or  poppy  plant,  by  incision  and  spontaneous 
evaporation  of  the  milky  exudate. 

It  is  used  as  an  antispasmodic  in  peripheral  irritation (  cough)  ; 
checks  excessive  secretions  and  suppresses  peristalsis  in  acute  inflam- 
matory affections  of  the  bowels  (the  bowels  should  be  previously 
cleared  of  the  irritant).    Useful  in  pleurisy  to  check  the  develop- 


302  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

me-nt  of  hydrothorax  and  in  peritonitis  to  prevent  ascites.  In 
catarrhal  diseases  it  lessens  the  discharge;  in  cerebrospinal  menin- 
gitis and  muscular  spasms  to  lessen  the  nervous  irritabilitj^ ;  to 
check  premature  labor  pain  and  prevent  straining  in  eversion  of 
the  rectum  or  uterus. 

Give  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  ergot. 

Ergot  is  a  powerful  vasomotor  stimulant,  haemostatic,  gastro- 
intestinal irritant,  and  ecbolic.  It  stimulates  and  contracts  involun- 
tary muscular  fibres,  and  hence  diminishes  the  blood-stream  passing 
through  the  arterioles ;  large  doses  or  small  repeated  doses  produce 
ergotism,  which  is  characterized  by  gangrene  of  the  extremities, 
due  to  lack  of  blood  supply  to  the  parts. 

Ergot  is  used  as  an  ecbolic  to  stimulate  weak  uterine  contractions 
and  promote  expulsion  of  the  foetus  or  foetal  membranes;  also  used 
as  a  vasomotor  constrictor  in  postpartum  or  other  internal 
hemorrhage. 


•^fe^ 


Give  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  the  iron  salts. 

Iron  in  general  is  a  heematinic,  stomachic,  styptic,  astringent, 
and  haemostatic.  The  sulphate  is  a  vermicide.  The  iodide  is  altera- 
tive and  resolvent  as  well  as  tonic. 

Iron  is  used  in  anaemia,  diarrhoea,  intestinal  worms,  and  as  a 
valuable  tonic  in  convalescence  from  debilitating  diseases.  Locally, 
the  chloride  of  iron  is  used  to  check  hemorrhage  and  as  an  astringent 
in  chronic  pharyngitis  and  laryngitis.  Internally,  it  is  used  as  a 
diuretic  and  tonic  in  purpura  hemorrhagica. 

The  hydrated  sesquioxide  of  iron  is  a  specific  antidote  for 
arsenical  poisoning.  The  phosphate  is  serviceable  in  diseases  of  bone 
(rachitis,  osteoporosis)  and  nervous  exhaustion.  The  sulphate 
improves  the  appetite  and  abates  exhausting  discharges  in  chronic 
catarrhal  rhinitis  and  endometritis. 

Give  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  cantharides. 

Externally,  cantharides  is  irritant,  rubefacient,  vesicant.  In- 
ternally, it  is  irritant,  and  stimulates  the  genito-uriuary  tract, 
diuretic  and  aphrodisiac. 

It  is  used  internally  (rarely)  to  produce  sexual  excitement; 
and  for  incontinence  of  the  urine  from  paralysis  of  the  bladder. 
Externally,  it  is  a  valuable  counterirritant  and  vesicant.  Used  in 
sprains,  tendovaginitis,  periostitis,  exostoses,  wind-puffs,  chronic 
laryngitis  and  pharyngitis,  and  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  horn 
and  hair. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWEES  303 

What  preparations  of  arsenic  are  most  used  in  veterinary  medicine? 

Arsenous  acid,  iodide  of  arsenic,  Fowler 's  solution,  and  Pearson 's 
solution. 

Give  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  arsenic. 

Arsenic  is  a  gastro-intestinal  and  respiratory  tonic,  a  stimulant 
and  alterative,  acting  especially  on  the  digestive  and  respiratory 
mucous  membrane  and  the  skin.  It  is  an  antiperiodic,  also  anti- 
spasmodic in  nervous  diseases,  and  is  a  nervine  tonic.  It  increases 
the  cardiac  action,  respiratory  power,  and  secretion  of  the  intestines ; 
also  has  a  vermicidal  action. 

Uses:  General  tonic  after  debilitating  diseases,  especially  pneu- 
monia, pleurisy,  and  bronchitis;  intestinal  worms,  chronic  cough 
(heaves).  Used  in  anaemia,  chorea,  chronic  eczema,  and  periodically 
returning  fevers. 

How  should  a  course  of  arsenic  be  administered  so  as  to  avoid  chronic 
arsenical  poisoning? 
Begin  with  very  small  amounts  and  gradually  increase  the  dose 
until  the  physiological  limit  is  reached  (oedema  and  itching  of  the 
eyelids),  then  gradually  decrease  the  dose.  Do  not  leave  off  the 
administration  abruptly,  A  tolerance  for  the  drug  can  be  acquired 
so  that  large  doses  may  be  given  with  impunity. 

Describe  the  actions  of  arecoline  hydrobromide  and  give  the  dose  for 
the  horse. 
Arecoline  hydrobromide  increases  salivation  and  intestinal 
secretions ;  stimulates  peristalsis,  slows  and  softens  the  pulse.  It  is 
used  as  a  quick-acting  cathartic  in  colics  and  acute  laminitis  in 
doses  of  1/4  to  1/3  grain  subcutaneously,  repeated  in  20  minutes.  A 
single  dose  of  1  to  li/o  grains  subcutaneously  is  given  by  some,  but 
fractional  doses  are  safer. 

Name  the  iodine  compounds  and  give  their  actions  and  uses. 

Liquor  iodi  compositus  (Lugol's  solution),  ammonium  iodide, 
sodium  iodide,  and  potassium  iodide  are  given  internally;  tincture 
of  iodine  and  iodoform  are  used  externally. 

Actions:  Externally,  stimulant,  irritant,  and  vesicant;  if  used 
concentrated,  antiseptic,  resolvent,  parasiticide,  deodorizer,  and  dis- 
infectant. Internally,  alterative,  resolvent,  deobstruent,  and  ex-, 
pectorant ;  stimulates  glandular  activity  and  promotes  tissue  changes 
as  well  as  the  absorption  and  elimination  of  recently  formed  tissue 
and  diseased  cells.  Forms  insoluble  compounds  with  lead,  mercury, 
and  other  metals  and  hastens  their  removal  in  cases  of  poisoning. 


304  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Uses:  Externally  for  enlarged  glands,  periosteal  inflammation, 
capped  hock,  curb,  chronic  synovitis,  pharyngitis,  and  larj-ugitis; 
to  stimulate  granulations  in  slow-healing  wounds  and  promote  the 
growth  of  hair.  Useful  to  disinfect  the  skin  before  operations; 
as  a  parasiticide  in  mange,  ringworm,  and  favus;  iodoform  is  used 
as  a  dusting  powder  in  suppurative  wounds  for  its  bactericidal  and 
stimulating  effect.    It  also  has  a  slight  anaesthetic  action. 

Internally,  potassium  iodide  is  most  commonly  used.  It  is  a 
specific  in  actinomycosis ;  alterative  in  chronic  bronchitis  and  laryn- 
gitis; antidote  for  chronic  lead  poisoning;  goitre,  scirrhous  cord, 
botryomycosis,  hydrothorax,  ascites,  cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  and 
periodic  ophthalmia  are  often  improved  by  the  use  of  potassium 
iodide  internally.  Ammonium  iodide  is  useful  to  hasten  the  stage 
of  resolution  in  pneumonia. 

What  effect  has  acetanilide  on  the  temperature?     Give  its  action  and 
uses. 
Acetanilide  has  a  decided  antipyretic  effect  in  fevers,  but  little 
effect  on  a  normal  temperature.     It  is  mildly  diaphoretic,  slightly 
antiseptic,  diuretic,  and  depressant  to  the  heart. 

It  should  be  used  in  very  high  fevers  only,  especially  thermic 
fever  (sunstroke),  in  one-  to  two-drachm  doses,  repeated  not  oftener 
than  every  six  hours. 

State  the  source  and  the  uses  of  acetanilide. 

Acetanilide  is  obtained  by  distilling  together  glacial  acetic  acid 
and  aniline  and  purifying  the  residue  by  repeated  crystallization. 
(See  answer  to  preceding  question.) 

Define  the  following  terms:  haustus,  collyrium,  electuary,  decoction, 
infusion,  elixir,  emulsion. 

Haustus  is  a  draft,  or  drench,  of  medicine. 

Collyrium  is  an  eye-wash. 

Electuary  is  a  medicinal  powder,  beaten  up  with  sugar,  honey, 
or  molasses  to  the  consistency  of  thick  paste.  Electuaries  are  in- 
tended to  be  smeared  on  the  teeth  of  animals  where  they  melt  at  body 
temperature  and  act  locally  on  the  mouth  and  throat. 

Decoction  is  an  aqueous  preparation,  obtained  by  boiling  drugs 
in  water. 

Infusion  is  an  aqueous  solution  of  a  drug,  macerated  in  boiling 
water  without  the  aid  of  ebullition. 

Elixir  is  a  sweetened,  aromatic,  alcoholic  solution  of  a  drug. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  305 

Emulsion  is  a  milky  fluid  obtained  by  mixing  an  oil  or  resin  with 
water.  The  globules  of  oil  or  particles  of  insoluble  resin  are  held 
in  suspension  by  some  gummy  substance,  usually  acacia.  Milk  is 
a  natural  eiliulsion. 

What  are  stimulants?     Name  (a)  a  cardiac  stimulant,  (b)  a  hepatic 
stimulant,  (c)  a  cerebral  stimulant,  (d)  a  diffusible,  or  gen- 
eral, stimulant. 
A  stimulant  is  an  agent  which  increases  functional  activity. 
(a)   Camphor,  (b)   podophyllum,  (c)  opium,  (d)  alcohol. 

Name  the  ingredients,  giving  the  proportion  of  each,  found  in  each  of 
the  following  mixtures :  the  A.  C.  E.  mixture,  the  E.  C. 
mixture. 

A.  C.  E.  =  Alcohol  1  part,  chloroform  2  parts,  and  ether  3  parts. 

E.  C.  =  Ether  and  chloroform,  equal  parts. 

What  is  meant  by  (a)  chemical  incompatibility,  (b)  physiologic  in- 
compatibility, (c)  pharmaceutical  incompatibility?  Give 
an  example  of  each. 

(a)  Chemical  incompatibility  occurs  when  drugs  are  so  mixed 
that  an  unsuitable  alteration  in  their  chemical  composition  takes 
place,  e.g.,  calomel  with  nitrohydrochloric  acid  forms  corrosive 
sublimate. 

(b)  Physiologic  incompatibility  consists  in  the  union  of  drugs 
possessing  antagonistic  physiological  actions; — e.g.,  atropine  and 
pilocarpine. 

(c)  Pharmaceutic  incompatibility  results  in  the  production  of 
an  unsightly  mixture  due  to  physical  change ;  e.g.,  resinous  tinctures 
and  aqueous  solutions  cause  the  resins  to  separate. 

How  do  tinctures  differ  from  spirits?     Give  examples. 

Tinctures  are  alcoholic  solutions  of  non-volatile  principles  (ex- 
cept Tr.  iodine),  made  usually  by  maceration  and  percolation  of 
the  crude  drug.  Examples,  belladonna  tincture,  aconite  tincture, 
etc. 

Spirits  are  alcoholic  solutions  of  volatile  substances.  Example, 
spirits  of  camphor. 

Describe  the  preparation  of  a  tincture.    Name  five  official  tinctures. 

The  majority  of  tinctures  are  made  by  percolation.  This  is 
accomplished  by  packing  the  powdered  drug  in  a  suitable  vessel  and 
depriving  it  of  its  soluble  constituents  by  allowing  a  menstruum,  or 
20 


306  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

solvent,  to  descend  through  it.  The  menstruum  used  is  alcohol, 
except  in  two  cases,  when  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  is  used  as 
a  solvent. 

Five  official  tinctures:  Tr.  aloes,  Tr.  iodine,  Tr.  nux  vomica, 
Tr.  gentian,  and  Tr.  opium. 

Give  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  veratrum  viride.  State  the  dose  for 
(a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 
Veratrum  viride  is  a  cardiac  depressant,  febrifuge,  spinal 
paralyzant,  emetic,  and  cathartic.  Used  about  the  same  as  aconite, 
but  is  inferior  to  same.  Employed  as  an  emetic  in  swine,  stomachic 
in  cattle  in  indigestion,  and  for  pneumonia  and  other  respiratory 
diseases  in  the  horse.  Used  to  lower  temperature,  relieve  pain,  and 
lessen  the  duration  of  acute  rheumatic  fever.  Dose  for  the  horse, 
5ss-j.,  for  the  dog,  gr.  Vio-1- 

Give  in  the  metric  system  (a)  the  table  of  weight,  (b)  the  unit  of  weight, 
(c)  the  unit  of  measure  of  liquids. 

(a)  10  milligrammes  =  1  centigramme, 
10  centigrammes  =  1  decigramme, 
10  decigrammes    =  1  gramme, 

10  grammes  =  1  decagramme, 

10  decagrammes  =  1  hectogramme, 
10  hectogrammes  =  1  kilogramme. 

(b)  One  gramme  is  the  unit  of  weight;  it  being  the  weight  of 
one  cubic  centimetre  of  distilled  water,  at  the  temperature  of  4°  C. 

(c)  One  cubic  centimetre  is  the  unit  of  measure  of  liquids. 

Give  the  actions  and  uses  of  quinine  sulphate.  State  the  dose  for  (a) 
the  horse,  (b)  the  cow,  (c)  the  dog. 

Quinine  sulphate  is  a  tonic,  antiseptic,  antiperiodic,  antipyretic, 
antiphlogistic,  antimiasmatic,  stomachic,  and  antiferinent.  Small 
doses  stimulate  the  heart  and  brain,  large  doses  depress  both.  Large 
doses  lower  reflex  activity  of  the  spinal  cord. 

It  is  used  as  a  bitter  stomachic  and  tonic  to  improve  the  appetite 
and  stimulate  digestion.  Checks  abnormal  gastro-intestinal  fermen- 
tation. Used  in  anaemia,  septica?mia,  pycemia,  influenza,  strangles, 
purpura  hemorrhagica,  and  other  infectious  febrile  diseases.  It 
is  of  great  benefit  in  distemper  of  dogs,  chorea,  and  rheumatism; 
also  used  as  an  antipyretic  and  stimulant  in  pneumonia  and 
bronchitis. 

(a)   2  to  4  drachms,  (b)  4  to  6  drachms,  (c)  1  to  5  grains. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  307 

State  the  dose  of  quinine  as  an  antipyretic  and  tell  how  often  the  dose 
should  be  repeated. 
Two  drachms,  repeated  every  three  or  fours  hours. 

What  is   an   anaesthetic?     Give  the  uses   of   anaesthetics.     Mention 
three  examples  of  each  of  the  two  great  classes  of  anaes- 
thetics. 
An  aufesthetie  is  an  agent  which  diminishes  or  abolishes  sensa- 
tion.    It  is  used  to  prevent  pain  and  struggling  during  surgical 
operations,  in  obstetrical  operations,  reduction  of  fractures,  dislo- 
cation and  hernias,  to  overcome  spasms  and  convulsions  resulting 
from  disease  or  poisons,  and  finally  to  destroy  aged  or  sick  and 
useless  animals.    Local  anaesthetics  are  sometimes  used  in  making 
diagnoses  of  lameness. 

Local:  Cocaine,  alypin,  and  stovaine. 

General:  Ether,  chloroform,  and  nitrous  oxide.  (Chloral  hy- 
drate is  often  used  as  a  general  anaesthetic.) 

Name  three  local  anaesthetics  and  describe  the  mode  of  application  of 
each. 

1.  Cocaine  hydrochloride.  Dose  for  the  horse,  2  to  10  grains, 
hypodermically.  Used  in  4  to  10  per  cent,  solution,  injected  under 
the  skin. 

2.  Eucaine  hydrochlorate.    Used  same  as  cocaine. 

3.  Phenol.  Applied  to  the  skin  over  the  line  where  an  incision 
is  to  be  made. 

What  is  morphine?  Describe  the  actions  and  uses  in  medicine  of 
morphine.  State  the  hypodermic  dose  for  (a)  the  horse, 
(b)  the  dog. 

Morphine  is  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  opium.  It  occurs  in 
colorless  or  white  crystals,  or  as  a  crystalline  powder,  odorless  and 
having  a  bitter  taste. 

It  is  hypnotic,  anodyne,  narcotic,  nervous  sedative,  and  anti- 
spasmodic. 

Used  in  eclampsia  -in  bitches ;  useful  in  painful  cough ;  relieves 
pain  in  spasmodic  colic,  pleurisy,  aud  dyspnoea.  Used  to  prevent 
straining  in  eversion  of  the  rectum  or  uterus ;  also  used  in  "thumps" 
(spasms  of  the  diaphragm)  and  as  an  anaesthetic  for  surgical  opera- 
tions on  dogs. 

(a)  3  to  5  grains,  (b)  ^/le  to  I/4  grain.  For  surgical  anaesthesia 
1  to  2  grains  are  given  hypodermically  to  dogs. 


308  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  the  composition  and  the  uses  of  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic. 
State  the  dose  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 
Fowler's   solution    (liquor   potassii   arsenitis)    is   an   arsenical 
preparation  of  1  per  cent,  strength.    Its  formula  is  as  follows: 

Arsenous  acid 1  part 

Potassium  bicarbonate   2  parts 

Compound  spirits  of  lavender 3  parts 

Distilled   water    9t  parts 

Used  as  a  alterative  and  tonic  in  chronic  intestinal  catarrh, 
emaciation,  chronic  dyspnoea  (heaves),  chorea,  chronic  skin  diseases, 
angemia,  rachitis,  osteomalacia,  etc. ;  as  a  vermifuge  for  intestinal 
worms;  used  externally  to  remove  warts. 

(a)   2  drachms  to  1  ounce,  (b)  2  to  10  minims. 

What  is  Pearson's  solution?  How  is  it  prepared?  Give  its  uses  and 
dose. 
Liquor  sodii  arsenatis  (Pearson's  solution)  is  a  solution  of 
sodium  arsenate.  It  is  made  the  same  as  Fowler's  solution,  only 
sodium  arsenate  is  used  in  place  of  potassium  arsenite  (potassium 
bicarbonate  and  arsenous  acid).  It  is  used  for  the  same  purposes 
and  in  the  same  doses  as  Fowler 's  solution,  but  is  less  irritating  and 
active.    (See  answer  to  preceding  question.) 

Give  the  principal  use  of  apomorphine  for  the  dog.     State  how  apomor- 
phine  is  administered  and  mention  the  dose  for  a  40-pound 
dog. 
Used  as  a  prompt  and  powerful  emetic.    Usually  given  hypoder- 
mically.    Dose  for  a  40-pound  dog,  V15  grain. 

Give  the  physiologic  actions  and  the  uses  of  belladonna. 

Belladonna  is  a  narcotic,  mydriatic,  antispasmodic,  and  anodyne. 
In  small  doses  it  is  cardiac,  respiratory,  and  spinal  stimulant ;  in 
large  doses,  a  paralyzer  of  the  secretory  and  motor  nerve-endings 
and  a  stimulator  of  the  entire  sympathetic  system. 

It  is  used  to  check  abnormal  secretion  in  ptyalism,  acute  catarrhal 
conditions,  and  polyuria.  Used  as  an  antispasmodic  in  colic,  tetanus, 
cough,  bronchitis,  and  dyspnoea.  It  suppresses  the  symptoms  of 
heaves,  relaxes  a  contracted  or  rigid  os,  and  allows  of  parturition. 
It  is  useful  to  relieve  congestion  in  the  beginning  of  acute  inflam- 
matory diseases,  as  laminitis,  pneumonia,  and  pleurisy.  Used  exter- 
nally in  liniments  for  muscular  pain.     It  is  used  in  ophthalmology 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  309 

to  dilate  the  pupil  and  paralyze  accommodation  for  purposes  of 
refraction ;  to  prevent  or  break  up  adhesions  of  the  iris  and  inflam- 
matory conditions  of  the  cornea.  Atropine,  the  active  principle 
of  belladonna,  is  generally  used  in  this  work. 

Give  the  source  of  atropine  and  describe  its  action. 

Atropine  is  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  belladonna.  It  is  the  chief 
alkaloid  of  this  drug  and  represents  its  action.  (See  answer  to 
preceding  question.) 

Name  five  antiseptics  for  wounds  and  give  the  strength  in  which  each 
should  be  used. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  1-1000  to  1-2000. 
Phenol,  3  to  5  per  cent,  solution. 
Creolin,  1  per  cent,  solution. 

Hydrogen  peroxide,  50  per  cent,  solution  or  undiluted. 
Lysol,  1/2  to  2  per  cent,  solution. 

Mention  four  preparations  of  iron  and  state  the  dose  of  each  for  (a) 
the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 
Ferrum  reductum,  (a)  1  to  3  drachms,  (b)  1  to  5  grains. 
Ferri  sulphas,  (a)  i/o  to  1  drachm,  (b)  %  to  2  grains. 
Tr.  ferri  chloridi,  (a)  2  to  8  drachms,  (b)  2  to  20  minims. 
Ferri  hydroxidum  cum  magnesii  oxide,    (a)    8  ounces,    (b)   4 
drachms. 

State  how  benzoated  lard  is  prepared  and  give  its  uses. 

Adeps  benzoinatus  is  made  by  melting  lard  1000  parts  with 
benzoin  20  parts.  The  melting  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  water- 
bath.  The  temperature  should  not  rise  above  60°  C,  and  should  be 
continued  for  two  hours.  After  straining,  the  mixture  should  be 
stirred  until  cool. 

It  is  used  as  a  base  for  ointments.  The  benzoin  acts  as  a  preser- 
vative to  prevent  the  lard  from  becoming  rancid. 

What  is  (a)  a  hypnotic,  (b)  a  mydriatic,  (c)  a  myotic?     Give  an  ex- 
ample of  each. 

(a)  An  agent  which  produces  sleep,  without  first  causing  excite- 
ment; e.g.,  potassium  bromide.  • 

(b)  An  agent  which  causes  abnormal  dilatation  of  the  pupil; 
e.g.,  atropia. 

(c)  An  agent  causing  abnormal  contraction  of  the  pupil;  e.g., 
opium. 


310  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

What  is  strychnine?  Describe  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  strychnine. 
State  the  hypodermic  dose  of  strychnine  for  (a)  the  horse, 
(b)  the  dog. 

Strychnine  is  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  nux  vomica. 

It  is  a  nerve  tonic,  gastric  tonic,  stimulates  respiration,  secre- 
tion, and  digestion;  it  increases  peristalsis,  stimulates  both  the 
motor  and  inliibitory  apparatus  of  the  heart,  and  raises  arterial 
tension  by  stimulating  the  vasomotor  centres,  thus  contracting  the 
arterioles ;  full  doses  relax  the  arterioles  and  thus  reduce  blood- 
pressure. 

Used  in  paralysis,  depression  of  the  nervous  system,  atonic  dys- 
pepsia, heaves,  diarrhoea  due  to  relaxation  of  the  bowels  from  lack 
of  tone,  in  small  doses;  convalescence  from  debilitating  diseases, 
collapse,  heart-weakness,  chloroform,  syncope,  narcotic  poisoning, 
constipation,  incontinence  of  the  urine,  etc. 

(a)   One-half  to  one  grain,  (b)  V250  to  ^/^o  grain. 

In  v^^hat  diseases  of  the  horse  should  nux  vomica  be  prescribed?  Give 
the  dose  of  the  fluidextract  of  nux  vomica  for  (a)  the  horse, 
(b)  the  cow,  (c)  the  sheep,  (d)  the  pig,  (e)  the  dog,  (f) 
the  cat. 

See  answer  to  preceding  question,  uses  of  strychnine. 
(a)   1  drachm,  (b)  2  drachms,  (c)  20  minims,  (d)  10  minims, 
(e)  2  minims,  (f)  1  minim. 

What  is  Goulard's  extract?    State  how  it  is  prepared  and  give  its  uses. 

Liquor  plumbi  subacetatis  (Goulard's  extract)  is  an  aqueous 
liquid,  containing  in  solution  about  25  per  cent,  of  lead  subacetate, 
prepared  by  boiling  together  acetate  of  lead  180  parts,  oxide  of  lead 
110  parts,  in  1000  parts  of  water.  It  is  an  active  astringent  and 
sedative.  Diluted  with  three  parts  of  water,  tliis  agent  is  used  for 
sprains,  bruises,  cuts,  burns,  scratches,  grease-heel,  skin  diseases, 
eczema,  canker  of  the  ear  in  dogs,  etc. 

What  drugs  are  used  internally  and  externally  to  check  hemorrhage? 
Adrenalin,   ergot,   digitalis,   turpentine,   opium,   bismuth,   lead 
acetate,  and  saline  infusions  are  used  internally. 

Adrenalin,  alum,  ferric  chloride,  ferric  sulphate,  tannic  acid, 
lead  acetate,  bismuth,  and  ether-sprays  are  used  externally. 

Mention  the  methods  by  which  temperature  in  fever  may  be  reduced. 
Which  method  is  the  most  rational  and  practical? 
The  temperature  in  fever  may  be  reduced  by  lessening  the  heat 
production  with  drugs  such  as  phenacetin,  antipyrine,  acetanilide, 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  311 

quinine  sulphate,  salicylic  acid,  aconite,  and  digitalis,  or  by  in- 
creasing the  heat  loss  with  alcohol,  spiritus  aitheris  nitrosi,  cold, 
and  purgatives.  The  former  method  is  better  because  it  strikes 
more  nearly  at  the  source  or  cause,  and  the  latter  method  stimulates 
the  production  of  heat. 

Give  the  properties,  the  uses  and  the  dose  of  potassium  chlorate. 

Potassium  chlorate  occurs  in  colorless,  monoclinic  prisms.  It 
easily  explodes  on  trituration  with  sugar,  sulphur,  tannin,  and  char- 
coal. It  is  soluble  in  1  to  16  parts  of  cold  and  1  to  2  parts  of  boiling 
water ;  antiseptic,  antacid,  alterative,  sialogogue,  diuretic,  febrifuge, 
and  cardiac  depressant,  and  is  used  in  laryngitis,  pharyngitis, 
stomatitis,  and  in  febrile  conditions  of  a  catarrhal  nature.  Dose, 
2  to  8  drachms. 

What  is  oil  of  turpentine?     How  is  it  obtained?     Give  its  medicinal 
use. 
It  is  a  volatile  oil,  distilled  from  turpentine.     Turpentine  is 
obtained  from  the  ordinary  yellow  pine  (Pinus  palustrus)  and  other 
varieties  of  pine.     For  uses,  see  following  question. 

Give  the  external  use  and  the  internal  use  of  oil  of  turpentine.  State 
how  oil  of  turpentine  should  be  administered. 

Used  externally  as  a  counterirritant,  rubefacient,  or  stimulant 
in  sprains,  arthritis,  pleurisy,  peritonitis,  spasmodic  colic,  etc. 

Internally,  it  is  used  as  an  antiferment  in  flatulency,  anthel- 
mintic for  round-  and  tapeworms,  stimulating  and  antiseptic  expec- 
torant in  chronic  bronchitis,  genito-urinary  antisej)tic  in  purulent 
nephritis,  cystitis,  and  urethritis.  Used  extensively  in  internal 
hemorrhage  and  purpura  hemorrhagica.  Injected  intratracheally 
for  lung  worms  in  calves  and  lambs. 

It  is  usually  administered  in  oil  or  milk.  (Its  irritating  proper- 
ties are  greatly  overestimated,  however,  as  it  can  be  given  by  the 
mouth  undiluted  with  no  inconvenijence  to  the  patient.) 

What  are  alkaloids? 

Alkaloids  are  active  nitrogenous  principles  existing  in  plants, 
extracted  by  chemical  art.  They  are  organic  bases  of  alkaline  reac- 
tion, forming  salts  with  acids,  and  as  salts  are  very  soluble  in 
water. 

Mention  six  alkaloids  used  in  veterinary  medicine.  State  the  dose  and 
the  mode  of  administering  each. 

1.  Morphine:  Morphine  sulphate,  3  grains,  hypodermically. 

2.  Strychnine :  Strychnine  sulphate,  1  grain,  hypodermically. 


312  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

3.  Quinine :  Quinine  sulphate,  2  drachms,  per  os. 

4.  Cocaine:  Cocaine   hydrochloride,    5    grains,   hypodermically 
or  intramuscularly. 

5.  Atropine :  Atropine  sulphate,  1  grain,  hypodermically. 

6.  Arecoline :  Arecoline  hydrobroraide,  1  gi'ain,  hypodermically. 

Name  three  alkaloids  and  state  the  source  of  each. 

Pilocarpine,  obtained  from  pilocarpus  (Jaborandi). 
Ergotine,  obtained  from  ergot. 
Digitaline,  obtained  from  digitalis. 

What  are  the  medicinal  uses  of  gentian  root?     State  the  dose  for  (a) 
the  horse,  (b)  the  ox. 
Stomachic  in  indigestion,  debility,  and  convalescence.     Used  to 
relieve  acute  and  chronic  flatulence. 

(a)   2  drachms  to  1  ounce,  (b)  1  to  2  ounces. 

What  are  the  medicinal  uses  of  ginger  root?    State  the  dose  for  (a)  the 
horse,  (b)  the  ox. 
Stomachic  and  carminative  in  atonic  indigestion  of  horses  and 
ruminants.     Used  to  aid  the   action  of  purgatives  and  prevent 
griping. 

(a)   2  drachms  to  1  ounce,  (b)  1  to  4  ounces. 

What  is  eserine?    State  the  dose  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  ox,  (c)  the 
dog. 
Eserine  is  the  principal  alkaloid  of  physostigma. 
(a)  1  to  2  grains,  (b)  1  to  3  grains,  (c)  Vioo  to  V25  grain  (hypo- 
dermically ) . 

What  are  the  actions  and  uses  of  eserine? 

Eserine  is  a  muscular  stimulant ;  it  stimulates  secretion  in  general, 
excites  nausea  and  vomiting,  and  is  a  laxative  or  purgative  by  stimu- 
lating the  muscular  coat  of  the  intestines  as  well  as  the  intestinal 
secretion.  It  also  acts  as  a  myotic  and  decreases  intra-ocular  tension. 
Used  in  constipation  due  to  torpor  of  the  bowels,  in  impaction 
colic  and  parturient  paresis.  Externally,  in  the  eye  to  decrease 
intra-ocular  pressure  and  contract  the  pupil  in  periodic  ophthalmia, 
where  it  is  sometimes  alternated  with  atropine  to  prevent  adhesions 
of  the  iris  and  diminish  pain  and  congestion. 

State  the  principal  alkaloid  of  the  Calabar  bean  and  give  its  dose  and 
uses. 
Eserine   (physostigmine)   is  the  principal  alkaloid  of  Calabar 
bean  or  physostigma.     (See  answer  to  preceding  questions.) 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  313 

What  blistering  agents  are  adapted  to  the  different  domestic  animals? 
Cantliarides  for  the  horse,  cantharides  and  red  mercuric  iodide 
for  bovines,  and  mustard  for  dogs  and  sheep. 

What  are  the  indications  for  the  use  of  counterirritants  ?    Name  five 
counterirritants. 

1.  To  overcome  congestion  and  inflammation  in  remote  parts. 

2.  To  promote  absorption  of  inflanunatory  products,  locally. 

3.  To  relieve  pain. 

4.  To  stimulate  the  heart,  respiratory  and  nervous  functions. 
Cantharides,   iodine,   mustard,   turpentine,    and   red   mercuric 

iodide. 

What  is  the  best  antiferment  in  gastric  flatulence?    State  the  dose  of 
the  antiferment  and  give  the  method  of  its  administration. 
Sodium  hyposulphite.    Dissolve  4  to  12  ounces  in  one  quart  of 
water  and  give  as  a  drench. 

What  is  chloral  hydrate?    How  is  it  prepared? 

Chloral  hydrate  is  a  crystalline  solid,  occurring  in  colorless, 
transparent  crystals,  having  an  aromatic,  penetrating,  and  slightly 
acrid  odor  and  a  bitterish,  caustic  taste.  It  is  freely  soluble  in 
water,  alcohol,  ether,  and  volatile  oils. 

It  is  prepared  by  passing  dry  chlorine  gas  into  alcohol  until  the 
latter  is  saturated.  It  is  purified  by  distillation  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  then  with  lime. 

Give  the  actions  and  uses  of  chloral  hydrate.  What  is  the  dose  for  the 
horse  ? 

It  is  a  local  irritant,  antiseptic  and  stimulant.  Internally,  it  has 
a  primary  stimulating  effect  on  the  circulatory  and  central  nervous 
systems,  but  secondarily  it  depresses  both. 

The  drug  is  used  to  lessen  irritability  and  produce  sleep.  Its 
principal  use  is  in  spasmodic  conditions  such  as  colics,  coughs, 
chorea,  tetanus,  etc.  It  is  one  of  the  best  antidotes  to  strychnine 
poisoning.  Used  by  some  as  a  general  anaesthetic,  but  is  not  as 
reliable  as  chloroform. 

Dose  for  the  horse,  1  to  2  ounces.  Pour  ounces  are  given  for 
anesthetic  purposes. 

Give  the  principal  uses  of  viburnum  prunifolium. 

It  is  used  as  a  tonic,  antispasmodic,  nerve  sedative,  and  anti- 
abortive.    It  is  principally  used  to  prevent  habitual  abortion. 


314  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  the  treatment  of  sunstroke. 

Remove  patient  to  a  cool,  shady  place ;  apply  ice-bags  to  the  head 
and  neck ;  cold  water  enemas  are  useful.  Give  antipyretics  and  heart 
stimulants,  acetanilide,  2  drachms  dissolved  in  1  ounce  of  aromatic 
spirits  of  ammonia,  every  two  or  three  hours.  Subcutaneous  injec- 
tions of  camphor,  ether,  alcohol,  atropine,  hyoscyamine,  caffeine, 
veratrine,  strychnine,  etc.,  have  been  employed  for  their  stimulating 
effect. 

Name  (a)  one  powdered  diuretic,  (b)  one  liquid  diuretic,  (c)  a  blood 
tonic,  (d)  a  nerve  tonic. 
(a)   Nitrate  of  potassium,    (b)   spirits  nitrous  ether,    (c)   iron 
sulphate,   (d)  nux  vomica. 

Name  (a)  tw^o  general  stimulants,  (b)  three  heart  stimulants.     State 
the  dose  of  each. 

(a)  Alcohol,  2  to  3  ounces;  aqua  ammonia,  2  to  4  drachms. 

(b)  F.  E.  digitalis,  1  drachm;  Tr.  strophanthus,  1  to  2  (irachms; 
spirit  of  nitroglycerin,  I/2  to  1  drachm. 

Describe  the  effects  of  the  external  applications  of  bismuth  salts. 
Give  the  physiological  actions  of  bismuth  subnitrate.  What 
is  its  dose? 
No  effect  on  the  unbroken  skin.     They  have  a  protecting,  seda- 
tive, astringent,  and  antiseptic  action  on  raw  surfaces. 

Bismuth  subnitrate  exerts  a  sedative,  astringent,  and  antiseptic 
effect  throughout  the  alimentary  canal  by  reason  of  its  insolubility 
and  coating  action  on  the  walls  of  the  same.  It  is  used  in  vomiting, 
diarrhoea,  and  intestinal  fermentation.  It  is  comparatively  harm- 
less and  can  be  given  in  relatively  large  doses.  Dose  for  the  horse, 
2  drachms. 

Mention  three  iodides  and  state  the  dose  of  each. 
Potassium  iodide,  2  to  4  drachms. 
Sodium  iodide,  2  to  4  drachms. 
Ammonium  iodide,  2  to  4  drachms. 

Name  two  remedies  that  are  used  to  promote  intestinal  peristalsis. 
Aloes  and  calomel. 

Where  are  cantharides  chiefly  obtained  ?     Give  the  active  principles  of 
cantharides. 

Cantharides  is  obtained  from  the  insect  Cantharis  vesicatoria,  or 
Spanish  fly,  which  is  found  in  the  southern  part  of  Europe,  Ger- 
many, and  Russia.    The  active  principle  is  cantharidin. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  315 

Give  the  actions  and  uses  of  heroin. 

Heroin  increases  the  inspiratory  and  expiratory  force  and  lessens 
the  number  of  the  respiratory  movements.  It  is  a  general  motor 
depressant  and  anodyne  and  exerts  a  special  sedative  influence  on 
the  respiratory  mucous  membranes. 

What  preparations  of  copper  are  used  in  veterinary  medicine  and  for 
what  purposes? 

Arsenite  of  copper  is  used  in  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  scours,  and  in 
relaxation  of  the  muscular  wall  of  the  intestines,  also  in  chorea 
in  dogs. 

Sulphate  of  copper  used  internally  as  an  emetic;  antidote  for 
phosphorus,  atony  of  the  bowels,  diarrhcea,  and  ascariasis.  Exter- 
nally, it  is  used  as  a  stimulant  and  caustic,  styptic  in  foot-rot,  granu- 
lar eyelids,  conjunctivitis,  etc. 

Acetate  of  copper  is  an  efficient  vermifuge  in  ascariasis  in  the 
horse. 

Give  the  properties  of  pepsin.    How  is  pepsin  prepared? 

Pepsin  occurs  as  a  fine,  white  or  yellowish-white  amorphous 
powder,  or  pale  yellowish,  transparent  scales  or  grains,  free  from 
offensive  odor,  having  a  mildly  acidulous  and  slightly  saline  taste, 
followed  by  a  slight  bitter  taste.  It  is  soluble  in  about  100  parts 
water,  but  more  soluble  if  the  water  is  acidulated  with  hydrochloric 
acid.  It  is  used  in  indigestion  in  young  animals.  It  is  prepared  by 
macerating  the  mucous  membrane  of  a  pig's  stomach  for  several 
days  in  a  weak  aqueous  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  pepsin 
is  precipitated  by  adding  sodium  chloride,  and  is  then  removed, 
pressed,  and  dried. 

Name  the  active  principle  of  three  of  the  following :  aconite,  belladonna, 
ergot,  digitalis  and  opium. 
Aconite:  Aconitine. 
Belladonna:  Atropine. 
Ergot :  Ergotine. 

Digitalis:  Digitaline,  digitoxin,  digitalein,  digitin,  digitonin. 
Opium :  IMorphine  and  codeine. 

Discriminate  between  the  physiological  action  of  chloroform  and  that 

of  ether.     Mention  the  dangers  in  anaesthesia.     How  may 

these  dangers  be  avoided? 

Chloroform  is  more  irritating  to  the  mucous  membranes  and 

causes  violent  gastro-enteritis  if  administered  undiluted;  it  is  less 

stimulating  and  more  depressing  to  the  heart  and  circulation;  for 


316  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

inhalation  it  requires  more  air,  is  less  irritating  to  the  respiratory 
membranes  than  ether,  is  more  prompt  in  action,  has  a  shorter  pre- 
liminary stage  of  excitement,  causes  a  more  profound  narcosis,  and 
is  less  nauseating  than  ether. 

(For  dangers  in  anaesthesia,  see  p.  258.) 

Give  the  name  and  the  dose  of  a  vermifuge  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the 
cow,  (c)  the  dog. 
(a)   Tartar  emetic,  5i;  (b)  ferri  sulphas,  5iss;  (cj  areca  nut, 
2  grains  per  pound  of  body  weight. 

Name  some  economic  antiseptics  for  veterinary  use,   internal  and 
external. 
Internal :  Phenol,  creolin,  sodium  hyposulphite,  salicylic  acid. 
External:  Phenol,  creolin,  corrosive  sublimate,  potassium  per- 
manganate, and  boric  acid. 

Define  laxative,  saline  purgative,  drastic  purgative,  cholagogue  purga- 
tive.    Give  an  example  of  each. 

Laxative:  A  drug  which  slightly  increases  intestinal  action 
chiefly  by  stimulating  peristalsis.    Example,  olive  oil. 

Saline  purgative:  A  drug  which  excites  peristaltic  action  by 
increasing  secretions  and  preventing  reabsorption.  Example, 
sodium  sulphate. 

Drastic  purgative:  A  drug  which  greatly  increases  peristalsis 
and  secretion,  violently  stimulates  intestinal  contractions,  and  pro- 
duces copious,  frequent,  fluid  discharges.    Example,  croton  oil. 

Cholagogue  purgative :  A  drug  which  stimulates  the  flow  of  bile, 
causing  green-colored  stools.    Example,  podophyllum. 

Mention  five  emetics  and  state  the  dose  of  each  for  the  dog. 

Mustard,  5i-ii ;  sodium  chloride,  oi-iv ;  zinc  sulphate,  gr.  v-xx ; 
apomorphine,  gr.  Vs-Vs  by  the  mouth,  gr.  V:;o-\/io  hypodermically ; 
tartar  emetic,  gr,  i-ii. 

Mention  five  different  kinds  of  medicine  classified  according  to  their 
general  action  and  state  what  the  general  action  is  in  each 
case. 
Strychnine,  stimulant. 
Opium,  depressant  and  narcotic. 
Arsenic,  tonic. 
Ether,  anaesthetic. 
Belladonna,  antispasmodic. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  317 

Describe  in  detail  the  method  by  which  you  would  administer  a  dose  of 

Epsom  salts  to  a  cow. 

Dissolve  the  salts  in  water  and  put  the  solution  in  a  long-necked 

bottle.    Raise  the  cow 's  head  so  that  the  nostrils  are  on  a  level  with 

the  eyes,  but  no  higher.    Gradually  pour  the  solution  into  the  mouth, 

watching  carefully  for  faulty  deglutition. 

Give  the  name  and  mention  the  use  of  each  of  the  following :  FCgPaOg, 
FeSo,,  FeXlc- 
FcgPoOs  (iron  sulphate)  is  used  in  diseases  of  bone,  diabetes,  and 
nervous  exhaustion. 

FeS04  (iron  sulphate)  is  used  locally  as  an  astringent  and  inter- 
nally as  a  haematinic  and  tonic  in  angemia ;  also  used  as  a  vermifuge 
and  in  chronic  catarrhal  conditions. 

FcoCle  (iron  chloride)  is  used  as  a  tonic  in  anaemia,  astringent  in 
chronic  pharyngitis  and  laryngitis,  and  externally  as  a  styptic. 

What  is  the  general  action  of  iodine?     State  the  dose  (a)  for  the  horse, 
(b)  for  the  dog. 

Alterative,   resolvent,   and  expectorant,   internally;   stimulant, 
irritant,  vesicant,  and  antiseptic,  externally. 
(a)   15  grains  to  1  drachm,  (b)  Vio  to  1  grain. 

Give  the  source,  general  action  and  the  dose  of  podophyllum. 

Obtained  from  the  rhizome  and  roots  of  podophyllum  pellatum 
Linne  (mandrake  or  May  apple). 

General  action  is  a  cholagogue  cathartic.    Dose  for  horse,  3i-ii. 

Name  the  different  kinds  of  aloes. 

Barbadoes  and  Socotrine  aloes  are  official. 
Cape  aloes  is  non-official. 

Name  two  coal-tar  products  used  to  reduce  temperature. 

Antipyrine  and  phenacetin. 

Give  the  properties  and  the  uses  of  lobelia. 

Lobelia  is  obtained  from  the  leaves  and  tops  of  Lobelia  inflata. 
Its  action  depends  on  its  alkaloid,  lobeline.  It  has  an  acrid,  nau- 
seous taste  and  very  unpleasant  odor ;  it  is  expectorant,  diaphoretic, 
purgative,  emetic,  antispasmodic,  and  narcotic.  Lobelia  is  very 
useful  in  asthma  in  dogs,  heaves  in  horses,  and  dry  coughs  in  general. 

Mention  a  motor  excitant  of  (a)  cardiac  muscle,  (b)  intestinal  muscle. 
State  in  each  case  the  dose  for  the  horse  and  for  the  cow. 

(a)  Digitaline:  Horse,  1^4  grain;  cow,  i/o  grain. 

(b)  Pilocarpine:  Horse,  3  to  5  grains;  cow,  5  to  10  grains. 


318  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

State  the  dose  and  the  general  physiological  action  of  cocaine. 

Dose  for  the  horse,  5  to  10  grains.  Not  much  used  internally. 
In  small  doses  it  is  a  cerebral,  cardiac,  respiratory,  and  nervous 
stimulant  and  diuretic.  It  is  a  powerful  local  anesthetic,  and  is  used 
in  this  connection  almost  entirely. 

Give  the  source,  preparation  and  uses  of  adrenalin. 

Obtained  from  the  suprarenal  glands  of  the  sheep  or  ox.  Pre- 
pared by  freeing  from  fat,  cleaning,  drying,  and  powdering.  Used 
to  arrest  hemorrhage  from  wounds,  mucous  membranes,  and  cavities 
of  the  body.  It  is  used  to  render  the  field  of  operation  bloodless 
in  minor  surgery;  in  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  eye  and  nose. 
Employed  internally  to  check  bleeding  from  the  stomach,  intestines, 
lungs,  and  uterus. 

What  is  the  dose  of  adrenalin  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 

In  solution  1-1000,  intravenously,  (a)  3i-iv,  (b)  10  to  60  minims. 

What  is  tar?     Give  the  uses  and  the  actions  of  tar. 

Tar  is  an  empyreumatic  oleoresin,  obtained  by  the  destructive 
distillation  of  the  wood  of  various  species  of  pines,  especially  that 
of  Pin  us  palustris. 

It  is  an  antiseptic,  stimulant  expectorant.  Externally,  antiseptic 
and  parasiticide.  Used  internally  in  cough  mixtures  for  chronic 
bronchitis  and  heaves.  By  inhalation  (burning  on  hot  coals)  it  is 
used  for  its  antiseptic  and  stimulating  effects  in  bronchitis,  distem- 
per, strangles,  etc.  Externally,  it  is  used  with  sulphur  and  linseed 
oil  in  eczema  and  mange  in  horses  and  cattle.  A  common  hoof  dress- 
ing for  diseases  of  the  feet  in  horses. 

Name  three  acid  tonics. 

Phosphoric  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  and  nitric  acid. 

Mention  six  diuretics  and  state  the  dose  of  each  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b) 
the  cow,  (c)  the  dog. 

1.  Potassium  nitrate,  (a)  i/o  ounce,  (b)  1  ounce,  (c)  10  grains. 

2.  Spirits  nitrous  ether,  (a)  2  ounces,  (b)  3  ounces,  (c)  i/o 
drachm. 

3.  F.  E.  digitalis,  (a)  %  drachm,  (b)  1  drachm,  (c)  Vj.  drachm. 

4.  Potassium  citrate,  (a)  i/L'  ounce,  (b)  1  ounce,  (c)  10  grains. 

5.  Potassium  acetate,  (a)  %  ounce,  (b)  1  ounce,  (c)  10  grains. 

6.  Balsam  copaiba,  (a)  4  drachms,  (b)  1  ounce,  (c)  y^.  drachm. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  319 

What  is  cascara  sagrada?     Give  its  uses  and  state  the  dose  for  the  dog. 

Caseara  sagrada  is  an  active  cathartic  obtained  from  the  bark 

of  Bhamnus  purshiana  (California  buckthorn).     It  is  used  in  dogs 

in  doses  of  5  to  30  grains  to  overcome  clironic  constipation  and  as  a 

stomachic. 

What  is  mustard?     State  its  uses  in  medicine. 

Commercial  mustard  is  a  powder  obtained  from  Sinapis  alba 
semina  and  Sinapis  nigra  semina,  which  produce  white  and  black 
mustard  respectively.  It  is  an  irritant  or  counterirritant,  rube- 
facient, vesicant,  or  suppurant,  according  to  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  used.  Used  internally  as  an  emetic  for  dogs  and  pigs.  Exter- 
nally, it  is  used  as  a  counterirritant  in  laryngitis,  bronchitis,  pneu- 
monia, pleurisy,  colic,  enteritis,  peritonitis,  etc. 

Name  (a)  a  drug  that  contracts  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  (b)  a  drug  that 
dilates  the  pupil  of  the  eye. 

(a)   Physostigmine,  (b)  atropine. 

What  is  the  effect  of  massage?     When  is  this  treatment  advisable? 

Massage  exerts  many  of  the  effects  of  counterirritants,  and, 
moreover,  assists  in  mechanically  relieving  overloaded  lymph-vessels 
and  veins.  It  increases  metabolism,  promotes  absorption,  stretches 
adhesions,  and  relieves  pain. 

It  is  advisable  in  case  of  cedematous  swellings,  as  in  the  joints, 
legs,  and  udder  (mastitis)  ;  also  useful  in  overcoming  muscular 
atrophy,  following  azoturia  or  from  other  causes,  and  to  relieve  pain 
in  neuralgic  attacks. 

State  the  uses,  dose  and  action  of  nitrate  of  potash  in  the  treatment  of 
the  horse  and  cow. 

Potassium  nitrate  is  used  in  pneumonia,  influenza,  mastitis, 
pharyngitis,  larj-ngitis,  dropsical  conditions,  and  many  febrile  con- 
ditions of  the  horse  and  cow.  Externally,  as  a  refrigerant.  It 
possesses  an  alterative,  febrifuge,  diuretic,  cardiac  sedative,  dia- 
phoretic, and  feebly  laxative  action. 

Dose  for  the  horse,  i/o  ounce,  and  for  the  cow,  1  ounce. 

State  the  actions,  uses  and  dose  of  sugar  of  lead. 

Plumbi  acetas,  acetate  of  lead,  or  sugar  of  lead,  is  astringent, 
haemostatic,  styptic,  anodyne,  local  sedative,  and  desiccant.  Used 
internally  to  check  hemorrhage,  diarrhcea,  dysentery,  arid  chronic 
catarrhal  bronchitis;  externally,  to  check  superficial  inflammation, 
tendonitis,  arthritis,  eczema,  scratches,  keratitis,  etc.  Dose,  1  drachm. 


320  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

State  the  physiologic  effects,  uses  and  dose  of  ether. 

Ether  is  anodyne,  antispasmodic,  diaphoretic,  anthelmintic;  a 
cardiac,  respiratory,  and  cerebral  stimulant,  an  anesthetic  and  a 
general  diflfusible  stimulant. 

Used  in  flatulency,  spasmodic  colic,  intestinal  worms,  and  as  a 
general  antesthetic  in  surgery.  Small  doses  are  stimulant  to  the 
heart  and  nervous  system  and  are  useful  in  collapse,  exhaustion,  etc. 

How  are  fluidextracts  prepared? 

Prepared  by  extracting  (percolation)  a  vegetable  drug  with 
alcohol,  or  alcohol  and  water,  then  concentrating  the  resulting  solu- 
tion by  evaporation  until  one  minim  of  the  fluidextract  represents 
one  grain  of  the  original  drug. 

Give  the  preparations  of  ammonia,  stating  the  dose  of  each. 
Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  1  ounce. 
Ammonium  carbonate,  2  drachms. 
Ammonium  chloride,  2  drachms. 

Give  the  source  of  ergot  and  the  dose  for  the  horse  and  dog. 

Obtained  from  the  smut  (a  fungous  growth)  on  rye.  Dose  of  the 
fluidextract:  For  the  horse,  ,1/2  to  1  ounce;  for  the  dog,  1/2  to  1 
drachm. 

Give  the  treatment  of  purpura  hemorrhagica. 

Both  general  and  local  treatment  are  indicated. 

General  treatment  includes  the  providing  of  good  hygienic  sur- 
roundings and  proper  diet;  an  easily  digested  and  laxative  diet  is 
best.  Most  commonly  used  drugs  are :  potassium  bichromate,  potas- 
sium chlorate,  digitalis,  turpentine,  camphor,  salicylic  acid,  quinine 
sulphate,  iron  preparations,  strychnine,  and  ergot. 

Local  treatment  is  directed  toward  swellings  which  threaten 
suffocation,  and  the  antiseptic  handling  of  wounds.  Tracheotomy 
may  be  necessary.  The  advocates  of  serum  therapy  claim  excellent 
results  with  polyvalent  vaccines,  antistreptococcic  sera,  etc. 

Give  the  medicinal  treatment  of  rachitis  in  the  dog. 

Calcium  phosphate,  or  the  syrup  of  calcium  iactophosphate,  is 
especially  indicated.  Iron  in  the  form  of  the  syrup  of  the  iodide, 
and  cod-liver  oil  are  beneficial. 

Define   (a)   diuretic,   (b)   diaphoretic,   (c)   hypnotic,   (d)   aphrodisiac. 
Give  an  example  of  each, 
(a)  A  drug  which  increases  the  secretion  of  urine,  potassium 
nitrate. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  321 

(b)  A  drug  which  increases  the  secretion  of  sweat,  pilocarpine. 

(c)  A  drug  which  produces  sleep,  potassium  bromide. 

(d)  A  drug  which  stimulates  sexual  appetite  and  function,  can- 
nabis indica. 

Name  three  preparations  of  zinc  and  state  the  uses  of  each. 

1.  Zinc  chloride  is  used  as  a  caustic  in  chronic  ulcers  and  fistulas, 
and  as  an  astringent  in  wounds;  also  used  in  conjunctivitis  and 
keratitis. 

2.  Zinc  sulphate  is  used  as  an  emetic  for  dogs  and  pigs.  Its  prin- 
cipal use  is  externally  as  an  astringent  (white  lotion). 

3.  Zinc  oxide  is  used  as  a  dusting  powder  for  wounds  and  ex- 
coriated surfaces.  Used  in  the  form  of  ointment  for  its  desiccating, 
astringent  and  protective  properties.  Occasionally  given  internally 
in  chorea  and  diarrhcea. 

Describe  tannic  acid.     Give  the  source  and  the  actions  of  tannic  acid. 

Tannic  acid  is  a  light,  yellowish  powder,  odorless,  or  having  a 

faint  characteristic  odor,  and  a  strongly  astringent  taste.     Soluble 

in  1  part  of  water.    It  is  obtained  from  nut-gall.    It  is  a  powerful 

astringent,  styptic,  and  coagulates  albumin. 

Compare  the  action  of  morphine  on  the  horse  with  its  action  on  the 
dog.    State  the  dose  in  each  case. 

Morphine  often  causes  cerebral  and  motor  excitement,  sweating, 
and  dilatation  of  the  pupil  in  the  horse.  In  the  dog  it  seldom  causes 
excitement  and  sweating,  but  does  cause  contraction  of  the  pupil, 
nausea,  and  cerebral  depression. 

Hypodermic  dose  for  the  horse.  3  to  5  grains;  for  the  dog,  ^/^g  to 
14  grain. 

What  is  (a)  a  tonic,  (b)  an  alterative?    Give  an  example  of  each. 

(a)  A  tonic  is  a  drug  which  produces  a  permanent,  though 
scarcely  perceptible,  excitement  of  aU  the  vital  functions.  Example, 
iron. 

(b)  An  alterative  is  a  drug  which  alters  the  process  of  nutrition 
and  excretion  and  restores  the  normal  functions  of  an  organ  or  of  the 
system;  e.g.,  iodide  of  potassium. 

Give  the  properties,  actions  and  uses  of  boric  acid. 

Occurs  in  transparent,  white,  scaly  crystals;  odorless,  faintly 
bitter  taste,  permanent  in  the  air,  and  feebly  acid.  Soluble  in  26 
parts  cold  water,  3  parts  of  warm  water,  and  in  15  parts  alcohol. 

It  is  a  non-volatile,  unirritating  antiseptic,  deodorant,  and 
astringent,  and  is  used  in  all  cases  where  an  antiseptic  is  indicated. 
21 


322  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Particularly  useful  as  a  vaginal  and  uterine  douche  and  to  flush  the 
bladder  in  cystitis.  Used  in  conjunctivitis  and  keratitis,  and  is  given 
internally  in  diarrhoea,  dog  distemper,  and  cystic  catarrh. 

What  are  expectorants?     Name  two  classes  of  expectorants  and  give 
an  example  of  each  class. 
Expectorants   are   agents  which  modify  the   secretion  of  the 
mucous    membrane    of    the    respiratory    tract,    and    promote    its 
expulsion. 

Two  classes:  nauseating  (ipecac)  and  stimulating  (ammonium 
chloride).  ' 

Name  three  vegetable  bitters.     State  the  dose  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b) 
the  dog. 

Gentian,  (a)   i/o  to  1  ounce,  (b)  5  to  30  grains. 

Quassia  (fluidextract),  (a)  1  to  2  ounces,  (b)  ^4  to  1  drachm. 

Cascarilla,  (a)  %  to  1  ounce,  (b)  10  to  30  grains. 

These  bitters  are  useful  in  promoting  the  appetite  in  atonic  indi- 
gestion, chronic  gastro-intestinal  catarrh,  angemia,  debility,  and 
during  convalescence  from  acute  diseases,  as  influenza,  pneumonia, 
etc.  They  also  possess  some  vermicidal  action,  especially  quassia, 
infusions  of  which  are  used  as  enemas  for  rectal  worms. 

They  are  contra-indicated  in  acute  inflammatory  conditions  of 
the  digestive  tract,  as  they  are  mild  irritants. 

Name  three  vegetable  cathartics.    Explain  briefly  the  action  of  each. 
State  the  dose  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  cow,  (c)  the  dog. 

1.  Aloes.  Stimulates  peristalsis  and  the  flow  of  bile,  (a)  8  to  10 
drachms,  (b)  1  to  2  ounces,  (c)  20  to  60  grains. 

2.  Oleum  lini.  Acts  mechanically  by  lubricating  the  bowels, 
(a)  ,%  to  1  pint,  (b)  1  to  2  pints,  (c)  y^  to  2  ounces. 

3.  Oleum  ricini.  Acts  by  increasing  secretions  and  mechanically, 
(a)  1  to  2  pints,  (b)  2  to  3  pints,  (c)  i/4  to  2  ounces.  Seldom  used 
in  horses  and  cows. 

Name  three  drugs  that  reduce  temperature  and  explain  the  action  of 
each. 

1.  Acetanilide:  prevents  waste  and  heat  ]^roduction,  by  increas- 
ing radiation  and  by  depressing  the  activity  of  the  heat  centres. 

2.  Aconite:  causes  vascular  dilatation,  thus  increases  heat  loss 
by  radiation;  retards  circulation  and  thus  lessens  heat  production. 

3.  Quinine :  by  its  antiseptic  properties  lessens  reflex  excitability, 
diminishes  oxidation,  and  depresses  the  heat  centres. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  323 

Describe  the  treatment  of  a  case  of  eczema  in  the  dog,  explaining  fully. 

In  the  erythematous,  papular,  and  vesicular  stages  zinc  oxide 
ointment  or  zinc  oxide  and  starch  dusting  powder  may  be  used. 
In  the  weeping  stage  6  per  cent,  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  or  some 
desiccant  powder  such  as  boric  acid,  lycopodium,  or  bismuth  sub- 
gallate  is  used  to  check  the  weeping.  Chronic  eczema  is  treated  with 
oil  of  cade,  sulphuretted  potash,  Peruvian  balsam,  or  creolin  in  suit- 
able dilutions.  Internally,  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic  is  of  great 
benefit. 

In  all  forms  dietetic  measures  are  employed ;  a  laxative  diet  and 
occasional  doses  of  sodium  sulphate  help  materially.  Cleanliness 
is  important,  and  in  this  connection  bathing  with  a  non-irritating 
soap  and  water  is  paramount. 

Describe  a  treatment  for  tapeworms  in  the  dog. 

Fast  the  dog  for  24  hours.  Give  oleoresin  aspidium,  15  to  60 
minims,  and  repeat  this  dose  in  three  hours.  Nine  hours  later  give 
a  purgative  dose  of  castor  oil.  If  the  head  of  the  taenia  is  not  ex- 
pelled, repeat  the  treatment  three  to  five  days  later. 

What  are  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  ipecac?    State  the  dose  for  (a) 
the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 
A  nauseating  expectorant,  emetic,  diaphoretic,  haemostatic,  ster- 
nutatory, stomachic.    Used  in  bronchitis,  dysentery,  jaundice;  also 
used  to  induce  vomition  in  dogs  and  pigs.    Dose  (a)  %  to  2  drachms, 
(b)  as  expectorant,  y^  to  2  grains;  as  an  emetic,  5  to  30  grains. 

Discuss  venesection.    What  therapeutic  measures  may  be  used  in  place 
of  venesection? 

Venesection,  or  blood-letting,  is  employed  chiefly  to  rapidly 
relieve  conditions  associated  with  a  high  arterial  pressure  and  local 
engorgement  of  some  organ.  It  reduces  temperature  and  relieves 
congestion,  dyspnoea,  and  cyanotic  conditions.  Venesection  is 
employed  in  plethoric  animals  only,  in  acute  pleurisy,  pulmonary 
congestion,  acute  laminitis,  urticaria,  acute  cerebritis  or  meningitis, 
parturient  apoplexy  in  cows,  etc.  It  is  also  employed  in  toxaemias 
to  remove  the  blood  and  its  contained  poison.  Four  to  six  and  often 
eight  quarts  are  drawn  from  the  horse. 

Circulatory  depressants  as  veratrum  viride  or  aconite  cause  a 
general  reduction  of  arterial  tension  and  relieve  local  congestion. 
Cathartics,  diuretics,  and  diaphoretics  abstract  fluid  from  the  blood- 
vessels and  thus  lower  blood-pressure.  Notable  among  these  are: 
arecoline,  potassium  nitrate,  and  pilocarpine. 


324  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Compare  the  action  of  digitalis  with  the  action  of  aconite  on  the  heart. 
Digitalis  slows  the  heart  and  increases  its  force,  whereas  aconite 
slows  the  heart  but  reduces  its  force. 

Give  the  action  and  the  uses  of  chloroform.  State  the  internal  dose 
for  the  horse  and  for  the  dog. 

Chloroform  is  irritant,  antiseptic,  parasiticide,  carminative,  anti- 
spasmodic, and  analgesic.  Locally  in  spray  and  internally  by  inhala- 
tion, an  anaesthetic. 

It  is  used  in  dystokia  to  prevent  straining ;  in  chronic  diarrhoea, 
taeniasis,  spasmodic  cough  and  colic.  Externally,  in  liniments  as  an 
anodyne  and  counterirritant  in  muscular  rheumatism  and  sprains; 
by  inhalation,  a  general  anaesthetic  in  surgical  operations. 

Dose :  For  the  horse,  1  to  2  drachms ;  for  the  dog,  2  to  20  minims. 

Describe  the  treatment  of  a  case  of  mange  in  the  dog. 

Bathe  with  warm  water  and  green  soap  to  remove  all  dirt  and 
scabs.  Clip  the  hair  if  it  is  long.  Apply  daily  for  four  days  a  mix- 
ture composed  of  Peruvian  balsam  15  parts,  creolin  5  parts,  and 
alcohol  80  parts.  Bathe  again  and  repeat  the  application  until  the 
skin  appears  normal. 

Mention  the  chief  uses  of  areca.  Name  two  constituents  of  areca  and 
give  their  therapeutic  uses. 

Areca  is  astringent  in  small  doses,  but  large  amounts  induce 
catharsis ;  an  effective  vermicide  for  dogs,  being  destructive  to  both 
tape-  and  round-worms. 

Two  of  its  constituents  are  arecoline  and  red  tannic  acid.  Are- 
coline  is  used  as  a  quick-acting  cathartic  in  colic,  acute  laminitis,  etc. 

What  is  the  chief  value  of  aspidium?     State  the  dose  for  the  dog. 
What    precautions    must    be    taken    when    administering 
aspidium? 
Chief  value  is  its  toeniacide  action.    Dose  of  oleoresin  aspidium 
(male  fern)  for  the  dog  is  15  to  60  minims. 

It  should  not  be  given  with  oils ;  they  aid  its  absorption. 

Give  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  cannabis  indica.     State  the  dose  for 
the  horse  and  for  the  dog. 
Cannabis  indica  is  an  antispasmodic,  anodyne,  and  narcotic;  a 
cerebrospinal  stimulant  and  aphrodisiac ;  increases  mental  and  motor 
activity,  stimulates  vasomotor  nerves,  and  depresses  sensation. 

It  is  used  to  relieve  pain,  spasm,  and  nervous  irritability.  Ser- 
viceable in  colic,  tetanus,  chorea,  and  irritable  cough.    Dose  of  the 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  325 

fluidextraet:  For  the  horse,  4  to  6  drachms;  for  the  dog,  2  to  10 
minims. 

Name  three  anthelmintics.     State  the  dose  of  each  for  (a)  the  horse, 
(b)   the  dog. 
Oleoresiu  aspidium,  (a)  3  to  6  drachms,  (b)  15  to  60  minims. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  (a)  2  to  4  ounces,  (b)  i^  to  4  drachms. 
Santonin,  (a)  i/^  ounce,  (b)  2  to  20  grains. 

Define  (a)  rubefacient,  (b)  sedative,  (c)  mydriatic.  Give  an  example 
of  each. 

(a)  A  drug  that  produces  slight  redness  of  the  skin,  as  mustard. 

(b)  A  drug  that  lessens  functional  activity  of  organs,  lowers 
motility,  and  diminishes  pain,  thereby  exerting  a  soothing  influence 
on  the  whole  system,  as  gelsemium. 

(c)  An  agent  which  dilates  the  pupil,  as  atropine. 

What  is  tartar  emetic?  Describe  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  tartar 
emetic.    State  the  dose  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 

Tartar  emetic  (antimonii  et  potassii  tartras)  is  prepared  by 
mixing  cream  of  tartar,  antimony  trioxide,  and  water. 

It  is  a  systemic  and  local  emetic,  diaphoretic,  cardiac,  and  arterial 
sedative,  gastro-intestinal  irritant,  expectorant,  and  vermicide. 

Used  as  an  emetic  in  dogs ;  in  the  dry  stage  of  bronchitis  and  for 
intestinal  worms  in  horses. 

Dose,  (a)  %  to  2  drachms,  (b)  emetic  1  to  4  grains,  expectorant 
Vio  to  1/4  grain. 

What  is  pyoktanin?    What  are  its  uses? 

"Pyoktanin"  is  the  trade  name  for  methylene  blue,  an  aniline 
dye.  It  is  antiseptic  and  astringent,  and  is  used  in  strength  of 
1-1000  to  1-100  for  ulcerated  cornea,  conjunctivitis,  ulcers,  and 
pus-secreting  sores  in  general.  Given  internally,  it  is  eliminated 
chiefly  by  the  kidneys,  rendering  the  urine  blue  and  exerting  an  anti- 
septic action  on  the  urinary  tract,  hence  it  is  serviceable  in  nephritis, 
cystitis,  urethritis,  etc. 

Give  the  source,  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  balsam  of  Peru.  State  the 
dose  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 
Balsam  of  Peru  is  obtained  in  Central  America  from  Toluifera 
'pereircE.  It  is  stimulant,  antiseptic,  and  parasiticide  externally; 
stomachic,  carminative,  and  antiseptic  internally.  Used  in  chronic 
eczema,  mange,  lousiness,  ringworm,  ulcers,  chronic  bronchitis,  pye- 
litis, and  cystitis. 

Dose,  (a)  1  ounce,  (b)  10  to  30  minims. 


326  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  the  treatment  of  a  case  of  mammitis  in  the  cow. 

Give  a  laxative  (Epsom  salts,  1  to  2  pounds).  After  purging, 
give  potassium  nitrate  in  one-ounce  doses,  twice  daily.  Apply  hot 
fomentations  several  times  daily,  and  follow  each  application  with  a 
cooling,  astringent  lotion,  such  as  Burrow's  lotion,  in  the  early 
stages.  A  suspensory  bandage  is  serviceable  to  hold  packs  and  afford 
relief  to  the  patient.  Afterwards,  emollients  such  as  camphorated 
oil  and  cocoa  butter  are  indicated.  The  udder  should  be  milked 
thrice  daily.  If  milking  is  painful,  use  a  milk  catheter  and  apply 
ointments  containing  belladonna  extract.  If  abscesses  threaten, 
apply  poultices  to  hasten  their  development,  open  and  use  antiseptic 
measures.    Gangrene  calls  for  amputation  at  an  early  date. 

Describe  permanganate  of  potassium.    Give  its  actions  and  uses. 

Potassium  permanganate  is  prepared  by  fusing  together  caustic 
potash,  chlorate  of  potash,  and  oxide  of  manganese.  It  occurs  as 
needle-shaped  crystals  of  a  deep-purple  color,  disagreeable,  astrin- 
gent taste,  soluble  in  16  parts  of  water. 

It  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent,  hence  it  is  antiseptic  and 
deodorant.    Full  strength  it  is  caustic;  diluted  it  is  astringent. 

It  is  used  to  deodorize  and  disinfect  foul-smelling  wounds,  nasal 
gleet,  stomatitis,  retained  placenta,  catarrhal  endometritis  (1-2000 
solution).  Used  to  sterilize  hands  and  instruments.  Internally,  it 
is  used  in  flatulency,  puerperal  fever,  septicaemia,  and  is  an  antidote 
for  morphine  and  opium  poisoning. 

Name  four  heart  stimulants.     Give  their  actions  and  state  the  dose  of 
each  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 

1.  F.  E.  digitalis:  Slows  the  heart  and  increases  its  force,  (a) 
1  drachm,  (b)  1  to  3  minims. 

2.  Tr.  strophanthus :  Same  action  as  digitalis.  (a)  1  to  2 
drachms,  (b)  2  to  10  minims. 

3.  Spirits  of  glonoin:  Accelerates  the  heart's  action  and  lowers 
blood-pressure  by  dilating  the  arterioles,  (a)  VL'  to  1  drachm,  (b) 
14,  to  2  minims. 

4.  Spts.  ammonia  aromaticus :  Stimulates  the  vasomotor  centres, 
(a)  Yo  to  ly^  ounces,  (b)  5  to  60  minims. 

What  is  an  emetic?     To  what  animals  should  emetics  be  given?     Give 
examples  of  emetics,  stating  the  dose  in  each  case. 
An  emetic  is  a  drug  which  produces  vomiting.    Emetics  are  given 
to  dogs,  cats,  and  pigs. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  327 

Ipecac :  Dose  for  dogs,  5  to  30  grains ;  swine,  15  to  30  grains ;  cats, 
5  to  10  grains. 

Tartar  emetic :  Dogs,  1  to  4  grains ;  swine,  4  to  10  grains ;  cats, 
1  to  2  grains. 

Apomorphine  hydrochloride:  Subeutaneously,  dogs,  ^/go  to  ^/lo 
grain ;  swine,  ^/ij  to  Vs  grain. 

What  preparations  of  arsenic  are  most  used  in  veterinary  medicine? 

Arsenous  acid.  Fowler 's  solution,  and  Pearson 's  solution. 

Discuss  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  the  salicylic  acid  preparations. 

Actions:  Antiseptic,  antirheumatic,  diaphoretic,  cardiac  de- 
pressant, antiferment,  antipyretic,  irritant,  and  astringent. 

Used  especially  in  rheumatism  and  muscular  soreness;  also 
used  in  influenza,  strangles,  purpura  hemorrhagica,  and  flatulency. 
Salicylic  acid  is  used  externally  as  an  antiseptic  in  wound  dressing, 
but  is  too  expensive.  Salol  is  used  in  diarrhoea,  cystitis,  urethritis, 
etc. 

Give  the  source,  actions  and  uses  of  camphor.  State  the  dose  for  (a) 
the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 

Camphor  is  obtained  from  the  branches  and  chipped  wood  of 
Cinnamomum  camphora,  or  camphor  tree.  The  wood  is  exposed  to 
the  vapor  of  boiling  water,  and  the  volatilized  camphor  is  condensed 
and  refined  by  sublimation.  It  is  also  obtained  by  tapping  the  trees 
and  collecting  the  exudate. 

Actions :  Antispasmodic  or  nerve  stimulant,  anodyne,  antiseptic, 
diaphoretic,  a  stimulating  expectorant,  a  cerebral  excitant  or  nar- 
cotic, a  gastro-intestinal  irritant,  a  rubefacient,  a  carminative,  a 
respiratory  and  cardiac  stimulant. 

Used  in  cough  mixtures  (electuaries)  for  acute  bronchitis,  pneu- 
monia, antispasmodic  in  colic,  "thumps,"  chorea,  etc.  Influenza 
and  dog  distemper  are  benefited  by  the  use  of  camphor.  Given  sub- 
eutaneously in  collapse  and  exhaustion.  Applied  externally  in  lini- 
ments and  oils  for  anodyne  effect,  also  to  check  milk  secretion. 

Dose,  (a)  1  to  3  drachms,  (b)  3  to  20  grains. 

Give  the  uses  of  caffeine  in  veterinary  medicine.    State  the  actions  and 
the  dose  of  caffeine. 
Used  as  an  antidote  to  opium  poisoning;  dropsical  swellings  in 
dogs,  heart  stimulant  in  collapse. 

Its  actions  are  cerebral  and  cardiac  stimulant  and  diuretic.  It 
increases  blood-pressure.    Dose  for  horse,  7  to  15  grains. 


328  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Give  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  strophanthus.     State  the  dose  for  (a) 
the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 
Strophanthus  slows  and  strengthens  the  heart,  same  as  digitalis ; 
also  has  diuretic  effect  by  increasing  blood-supplj^  to  kidneys  and 
by  stimulating  the  secretory  cells  of  the  renal  tubules.     It  is  not 
cumulative  like  digitalis.     Used  in  valvular  disease  of  the  heart, 
ascites,  hydrothorax,  chronic  interstitial  nephritis,  and  as  a  substi- 
tute for  digitalis  when  the  latter  is  losing  its  effect  from  repeated  use. 
Dose  of  the  tincture,  (a)  1  to  2  drachms,  (b)  2  to  10  minims. 

Give  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  podophyllin.     State  the  dose  for  (a) 
the  horse,  (b)  the  dog. 
Cholagogue  cathartic,  slow  and  uncertain.    Used  in  constipation 
associated  with  jaundice  and  hepatic  disorders. 
Dose,  (a)  1  to  2  drachms,  (b)  1  to  2  grains. 

Give  the  composition  and  the  therapeutic  uses  of  Dover's  powder. 

Dover 's  powder,  or  pulvis  ipecachuanhae  et  opii,  consists  of  ipecac 
10  per  cent.,  powdered  opium  10  per  cent.,  sugar  of  milk  80  per  cent. 

Used  as  a  diaphoretic  and  expectorant  in  colds,  early  stages  of 
acute  bronchitis,  and  pneumonia. 

Discuss  pilocarpine  with  reference  to  its  composition,  actions  and 
uses.     State  the  dose. 

Pilocarpus  contains  two  alkaloids,  pilocarpine  and  jaborine. 

Pilocarpus  is  a  diaphoretic,  sialogogue,  cardiac  depressant,  my- 
otic, emetic,  expectorant.  The  alkaloid  pilocarpine  is  used  to  assist 
eserine  in  its  action  as  a  quick-acting  cathartic  in  colic,  etc.  Pilo- 
carpus is  used  as  an  expectorant  in  bronchitis,  and  as  a  diaphoretic 
to  stop  chills  and  abort  inflammatory  diseases  such  as  pneumonia, 
lymphangitis,    laminitis,  azoturia,  etc. 

Dose  of  the  fluidextract  for  the  horse,  }/2  to  1  ounce ;  pilocarpine, 
hypodermically,  2  to  5  grains. 

Describe  croton  oil  as  to  derivation,  physical  properties,  action,  uses, 
dose,  toxic  dose  and  antidote. 
Croton  oil  is  a  fixed  oil  expressed  from  the  seed  of  Croton  iiglium. 
It  is  a  pale-yellow,  viscid  liquid,  having  a  slight  fatty  odor  and  an 
oily,  burning  taste.  Externally  it  is  a  powerful  irritant,  and  inter- 
nally it  is  an  intense  gastro-intestinal  irritant,  causing  drastic  pur- 
gation. It  is  used  as  a  counterirritant  (cautiously).  Internally  it 
is  given  for  its  drastic  purgative  action  to  horses  and  cattle,  in 
obstinate  constipation  when  other  remedies  fail. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  329 

Dose  for  the  horse,  15  to  30  drops  in  olive  or  linseed  oil.  Toxic 
dose,  over  30  drops,  although  smaller  amounts  may  produce  gastro- 
enteritis with  bloody  stools  and  death.    Should  be  given  cautiously. 

Antidote :  Demulcents,  opium,  and  stimulants. 

Define  cataplasm,  counterirritant,  fomentation. 

A  cataplasm,  or  poultice,  is  a  preparation  for  the  local  appli- 
cation of  heat  and  moisture. 

A  counterirritant  is  an  irritant  used  against  an  existing  irri- 
tation or  inflammation  by  reflexlj^  causing  contraction  of  the  vessels 
in  the  congested  or  inflamed  underlying  parts. 

Fomentation  refers  to  bathing  parts  with  plain  or  medicated  hot 
water,  by  means  of  sponge  or  cloth. 

Define  disinfectant,  antiseptic,  deodorant.  Explain  the  difference  in 
the  action  of  these  agents. 

A  disinfectant  is  an  agent  used  to  destroy  microorganisms  caus- 
ing infectious  and  contagious  diseases,  fermentation,  and  putre- 
faction. 

An  antiseptic  is  an  agent  used  to  prevent  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  the  microorganisms  causing  fermentation,  putrefac- 
tion, and  disease,  more  especially  the  germs  producing  pus. 

A  deodorant  is  an  agent  which  destroys  or  counteracts  a  foul 
odor. 

Disinfectants,  as  a  rule,  are  used  on  floors,  buildings,  grounds, 
etc.  Antiseptics  are  less  strongly  germicidal  and  are  used  on  or  in 
the  body.     Most  deodorants  are  disinfectants  and  antiseptics. 

Give  a  method  of  treatment  of  haemoglobinuria. 

Administer  a  ten-drachm  aloes  ball,  followed  by  linseed  oil  if 
necessary.  Provide  plenty  of  bedding  in  a  warm  stable  and  roll 
patient  over  every  four  hours.  If  restless  and  violent,  give  chloral 
hydrate  by  the  mouth,  or  cannabis  indica  intravenously.  Evacuate 
the  bladder  and  rectum  several  times  daily.  Avoid  slings  unless 
patient  can  stand,  in  which  case  they  are  unnecessary.  Enforced 
standing  is  liable  to  produce  muscle  rupture  and  intramuscular 
hemorrhage.    Feed  bran-mashes  and  supply  plenty  of  fresh  water. 

Give  a  method  of  treatment  of  lymphangitis. 

Give  a  ten-drachm  aloes  ball,  followed  by  one  pint  of  linseed  oil 
if  necessary  to  purge.  Feed  bran-mashes  and  give  plenty  of  fresh 
water,  but  no  hay.  Cold-water  irrigation  is  indicated  during  the 
first  24  hours,  afterwards  hot  fomentations.    Apply  Burrow 's  lotion 


330  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

after  irrigating.  Give  a  diuretic  such  as  potassium  nitrate,  one-half 
ounce  three  times  daily.  Exercise  is  beneficial  as  soon  as  the  patient 
is  able  to  walk.    Treat  any  wounds  antiseptically. 

Give  the  treatment  of  constipation  in  a  hog  weighing  about  200  pounds. 
Mention  three  methods  of  administering  the  medicine. 
Warm  soap-water  enemas  will  empty  the  posterior  bowel  and 
stimulate  peristalsis.  Add  one  ounce  of  sodium  sulphate  to  the 
feed  or  drinking  water  or  sprinkle  upon  the  tongue.  The  stomach- 
tube  may  be  used  to  administer  liquid  medicines  to  prevent  aspira- 
tion of  same  into  the  lungs.  Three  ounces  of  castor  oil  may  be  given 
in  this  way.  Subcutaneous  injections  of  eserine  sulphate  in  ^/g-grain 
doses  may  be  useful  in  removing  the  impaction. 

Give  the  actions  and  the  uses  of  resorcin.     State  the  dose  (a)  for  the 

horse,  (b)  for  the  dog. 

Resorcin  is   antiseptic   externally,   and   internally  possesses   a 

slight  local  anaesthetic  effect.     Used  externally  in  skin  diseases, 

psoriasis  especially.     Internally  used  in  gastric  fermentation  and 

indigestion,  seldom.    Dose,  (a)  1  to  2  drachms,  (b)  2  to  4  grains. 

What  are  the  uses  of  protargol  in  veterinary  medicine?  Describe 
fully. 
Protargol  is  a  non-official  preparation  of  silver  (8.3  per  cent, 
strength) .  It  is  used  in  acute  catarrhal  and  purulent  conjunctivitis 
in  from  one-half  to  ten  per  cent,  aqueous  solutions.  It  has  an  anti- 
septic and  astringent  action  and  is  less  irritating  than  silver  nitrate 
solutions. 

Discuss  potassium  nitrate  as  to  derivation,  actions  and  uses.  State 
the  dose  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  cow,  (c)  the  dog. 

Potassium  nitrate  is  found  in  the  soils  in  certain  regions  and 
climates  (India  and  Chile).  It  is  made  artificially  by  the  putre- 
faction of  animal  or  vegetable  material  in  the  presence  of  heat,  mois- 
ture, oxygen,  and  alkaline  or  earthy  bases. 

It  is  alterative,  febrifuge,  diuretic,  and  feebly  laxative  in  action. 
It  is  also  cardiac  depressant,  mildly  refrigerant  and  diaphoretic, 
as  well  as  expectorant. 

Used  in  febrile  conditions  such  as  pneumonia,  infiuenza,  laminitis, 
mastitis,  etc. ;  dropsical  swellings  in  general.  Externally,  it  is  used 
for  its  refrigerant  action  in  local  inflammatory  conditions. 

Dose,  (a)  %;  ounce,  (b)  1  ounce,  (c)  5  to  20  grains. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  331 

Give  the  action  and  the  uses  of  sodium  bicarbonate.  State  the  dose 
for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  dog.     Discuss  fully. 

Sodium  bicarbonate  is  antacid,  alterative,  and  mildly  anodyne 
(locally).  It  increases  the  flow  of  the  gastric  juice  and  the  fluidity 
of  the  bile,  and  dissolves  mucus. 

Used  in  catarrh  of  the  gastro-intestinal  tract,  gastric  indigestion 
associated  with  flatulency  and  acidity.  Often  combined  with  calomel 
for  its  synergistic  action.  Dissolves  membranes  in  croupous  enteritis. 
Externally,  it  is  used  in  solution  to  allay  itching  in  skin  diseases, 
burns,  etc.,  and  as  an  injection  for  leucorrhoea  and  chronic  rhinitis. 

Dose,  (a)  2  drachms  to  2  ounces,  (b)  10  grains  to  I/2  drachm. 

What  are  (a)  antiphlogistics,  (b)  antipyretics?  Give  an  example  of 
each. 

(a)  Remedies  employed  to  prevent  the  progress  of  inflammatory 
processes,  either  local  or  general,  as  ichthyol. 

(b)  Agents  which  reduce  high  temperature  in  fever,  as 
phenacetin. 

How  do  acids  and  alkalies  act  on  the  secretions? 

Acids  lessen  the  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice  and  increase  the 
secretion  of  saliva.  Alkalies  increase  the  flow  of  gastric  juice  and 
diminish  the  secretion  of  saliva. 

How  are  medicines  classified? 

A  physiological  classification  of  medicines  depends  upon  their 
action,  whether  general  or  local.  Drugs  having  a  general  action 
may  be  subdivided  into  stimulants,  sedatives,  tonics,  and  alteratives. 
Drugs  acting  locally  may  be  classified  according  to  the  part  or  parts 
upon  which  they  act;  for  instance,  cardiac  stimulants,  cerebral 
excitants,  gastric  sedatives,  etc. 

Name  agents  that  prominently  affect  the  alimentary  canal  or  its  con- 
tents. 
Aloes,  calomel,  bismuth  subnitrate,  and  opium. 

Name  agents  that  prominently  affect  the  respiratory  organs. 

Lobelia,  ipecac,  belladonna,  veratrum,  and  ether. 

Name  agents  that  prominently  affect  the  follicular  or  glandular  organs. 
Pilocarpine,  belladonna,  eserine,  and  arecoline. 

Name  agents  that  prominently  affect  the  nervous  system. 

Strychnine,  opium,  chloral,  and  ether. 


332  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Name  agents  that  prominently  affect  the  organs  of  reproduction. 

Ergot,  cannabis  indica,  cantharides,  and  viburnum  prunifolium. 

Name  agents  whose  actions  are  prominently  chemical. 

Acids,  alkalies,  and  caustics. 

Name  agents  whose  actions  are  prominently  mechnical. 
Linseed  oil,  petrolatum,  and  acacia. 

Describe  saline  infusion,  three  methods  of  introduction  and  three  indi- 
cations for  its  use. 

Saline  infusion  refers  to  the  introduction  of  a  solution  of  sodium 
chloride  into  the  animal's  body  to  replace  the  normal  blood-plasma 
which  has  been  lost  by  hemorrhage  or  has  been  withdrawn  for  thera- 
peutic purposes.  The  solution  which  is  used  consists  of  0.6  of  1  per 
cent,  sodium  chloride  in  sterile  distilled  water. 

The  fluid  may  be  introduced  by  (1)  intravenous  injection,  (2) 
injections  into  subcutaneous  tissues  (hypodermoclysis),  (3)  rectal 
injection  (enteroclysis),  (4)  intraperitoneal  injection. 

Saline  infusions  are  used  in  cases  of  excessive  purging  where  a 
large  amount  of  fluid  is  lost ;  in  severe  hemorrhage ;  in  certain  blood- 
poisoning  diseases  the  patient  may  be  bled  to  rid  the  body  of  some 
of  the  toxin  present,  and  the  fluidity  of  the  blood  restored  by  this 
method. 

Prescription  Writing 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  purgative. 

Jan.  2,  1914. 

For  Mr.  Brown's  bay  horse. 

Aloes    barbadensis    3  x 

Hydrargyri  chloridi  mitis gr.  xxx 

Pulveris   zingiberis    3  iss 

Theriacse     qs. 

M.  et  fiant  bolus  No.  I. 

Sig. — For  doctor's  use. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  chronic  cough. 

Jan.  2,  1914. 
For  Mr.  Jones's  gray  gelding. 

Guaiacoli    5  iv 

Olei  lini    O  ij 

M.  Sig. — Give  one  tablespoonful  3  or  4  times  daily. 

John  Uoe,  D.V.M. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  333 

Write  a  prescription  for  round  worms  in  the  dog.     Give  full  directions. 
For  Miss  Smith's  dog.  Jan.  2,  1914. 

Santonini. 

Hydrargyri  chloridi  mitis aa  grs.  iv 

Sodium    bicarbonatis     3  j 

M.  et  div.  pulv.  No.  viij. 

Sig. — Fast  dog  2-1  hours,  then  give  one  powder  every 
hour  imtil  all  are  given. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  two-weeks-old  calf  suffering  from  diarrhcsa. 
For  Mr.  Jones's  calf.  Jan.  2,  1914. 

Bismuthi  subnitratis. 

Cretae  prseparatse    aa  3  iij 

M.  et  ft.  capsulse  No.  X. 

Sig. — Give  one  capsule  every  two  hours. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  horse  whose  temperature  is  105°,  respiration 
30  and  pulse  75  but  strong,  the  medicine  to  be  given  in  liquid 
form. 

For  Mr.  Brown's  bay  mare.  Jan.  2,  1914. 

Quininffi   sulphatis    3  iv 

(Ac.  sulphurici,  qs. ) 

Tr.  digitalis  §  v 

Alcoholis   qs.   ad 0  j 

M.  et  ft.  sol. 

Sig. — Give  two  tablespoon sful  every  six  hours. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  for  half  an  ounce  of  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of 
cocaine. 

Cocaine  hydrochloratia   grs.  xij 

Aquae  destillatae 3  iv 

Prescribe  for  a  dog  suffering  from  mange. 

For  Mrs.  Smith's  dog.  Jan.  2,  1914. 

Balsami  Peruviani  3  iiss 

Creolini 3  vj 

Alcoholis  qs.  ad 0  j 

M.  et  ft.  sol. 

Sig. — Apply  a  small  amount  on  affected  areas  once  daily 
for  four  days,  then  bathe  and  repeat. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 


334  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  purgative  for  a  900-pound  cow. 

For  Mr.  Brown's  cow.  Jan.  2,  1914. 

Magnesii  sulphatis o  xxiv 

Sodii  chloridi    S  viij 

Tr.  zingiberis 5  iij 

Aquie     0  iv 

M.  Sig. — Give  at  one  dose  as  a  drench. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  horse  suffering  from  spasmodic  colic,  giving 
the  directions  in  plain  English. 

For  Mr.  Brown's  bay  mare.  Jan.  2,  1914. 

Spts.  ammonii  aromatici. 

Olei  terebinthinae aa  5  j 

Olei  lini 3  xiv 

M.  Sig. — Give  at  one  dose  as  a  drench. 

John  Doe,  D.V.IVL 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  tonic  for  (a)  the  horse,  (b)  the  cow,  (c) 
the  dog. 

(a)  I^ 

Liquoris  potassii  arsenitis §  xij 

Tincturse  gentianse  comp §  iss 

Tincturse  aloes 3  ij 

riuidi  extract!  nucis  vomicas S  isa 

M.  Sig. — Give  one  tableepoonful  t.  i.  d.  before  meals. 

(b)  B 

Quininae   sulphatis    3  vj 

Ferri  sulphatis   S  ij 

Pulveris  gentinse  radicis    5  vj 

Pulveris  nucis  vomicae  S  iss 

M.  et  ft.  pulv.  No.  xij. 

Sig. — Give  one  powder  on  tongue  t.  i.  d. 

(c)  n 

Syrupi  ferri,  quininae  et  strychninae  phosphati §  iv 

Sig. — One  teaspoonful  t.  i.  d.  before  feeding. 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  cough  powder  for  an  adult  horse. 
For  Mr.  Smith's  brown  stallion.  Jan.  2,  1914. 

Camphorse. 

Potassii  chloratis  iifi  5  j 

Pulveris  glycyrrhizae    S  iv 

Fl.  ext.  belladonuse  5  j 

Theriacae  qs. 

Misce  et  fiant  electuarium. 

Sig. — One  tablespoonful  on  back  teeth  t.  i.  d. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  335 

Write  a  prescription  for  15  powders  for  a  tonic  containing  a  simple 
bitter,  a  preparation  of  iron  and  a  nerve  tonic,  to  be  given  in 
powder  form. 

For  Mr.  Black's  gray  mare.  Jan.  2,  1914. 

Pulveris  gentianae  radicis S  viij 

Ferri  sulpliatis  3  ij 

Strychnine  sulphatis grs.  xij 

M.  et  ft.  pulv.  No.  XV. 

Sig. — Give  one  powder  in  feed  t.  i.  d. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Prescribe  a  treatment  for  chronic  eczema  in  the  dog. 

For  Mies  Johnson's  dog.  Jan.  2,  1914. 

Sulphuris   sublimati    5  j 

Olei   cadini    g  ii  j 

Adipis  lanse  hydros! g  v 

M.  et  ft.  unguentum. 

Sig. — Thoroughly  rub  in  and  leave  for  48  hours,  then 
wash  and  repeat. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  blister,  in  the  form  of  an  ointment.  Give 
directions  for  applying  the  blister  and  state  what  precau- 
tions should  be  taken  after  it  is  applied. 

For  Mr.  Williams's  bay  mare.  Jan.  3,  1914. 

Hydrargyri  biniodidi. 

Pulveris   cantharis    Sa  3  ij 

Adipis    5  iij 

M.  et  ft.  unguentum. 

Sig. — Clip  hair  over  spavin  and  apply  ointment  with  con- 
siderable friction.  Three  days  later,  apply  vase- 
line over  blistered  area.  Tie  horse  short  to  pre- 
vent interference  by  biting  parts. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  cathartic  for  a  sheep. 

For  Mr.  Black's  sheep.  Jan.  3,  1914. 

Magnesii  sulphatis  g  vj 

Sodii  chloridi    g  ij 

Misce  et  ft.  pulv.  No.  I. 

Sig. — Dissolve  powder  in  half  pint  of  water  and  give  as 

a  drench. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 


336  VETERINAEY  STATE  BOARD 

Prescribe  treatment  for  a  dog  whose  temperature  is  105°,  respiration 
50  and  pulse  120  but  weak,  the  medicine  to  be  given  in  liquid 
form. 

For  Miss  Brown's  dog.  Jan.  3,  1914. 

Tincturae    aconiti    3  isa 

Spts.  setheris  nitrosi   3  iv 

Aquae  qs.  ad 3  ij 

Misce  et  ft.  sol. 

Sig. — One  teaspoonful  every  3  hours. 

John  Doe,  D.V.iL 

Write  a  prescription  for  scratches. 

For  Mr.  Jennings's  chestnut  mare  Jan.  3,  1914. 

Tincturae  benzoini  compositae. 

Glycerini aa  §  viij 

Misce  et  ft.  sol. 

Sig. — Apply  to  aifected  leg  t.  i.  d, 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  liniment. 
Liniment. 

Olei  terebinthinse. 
Aquae  ammonii. 

Camphoras   aa  5  i 

Olei  lini 5  v 

Misce. 

Sig. — Shake  well  before  using. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  cow  suffering  from  actinomycosis. 
For  Mr.  Black's  cow.  Jan.  3,  1914. 

Potassii  iodidi    3  xij 

Ft.  pulv.  No.  xvi. 

Sig. — One  powder  in  drinking  water  once  daily. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Prescribe  for  a  horse  suffering  from  acute  indigestion. 

Jan.  3,  1914. 
For  Mr.  White's  bay  gelding. 

n 

Sodii  hyposulphitis   8  xiv 

Ft.  pulv.  No.  II. 

Sig. — Dissolve  one  powder  in  a  pint  of  water  and  give 
as  a  drench.     Repeat  in  one  hour  if  necessary. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  337 

Aloes  barbadensis 3  x 

Hydrargyri  chloridi  mitis gr.  xxx 

Pulveris  zingiberis   3  isa 

Tlieriacae  qs. 

M.  et  ft.  bolus  No.  I. 

Sig. — Give  one  hour   after  drenching. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M, 
(Evacuation  of  stomach  by  means  of  stomach  tube  is  best 

treatment. ) 

Write  a  prescription  for  ringworm. 

For  Miss  Bro\vn's  dog.  Jan.  3,  1914. 

Balsami  Peruviani    3  ij 

Adipis  benzoinati    g  ij 

M.  et  ft.  unguentum. 

Sig. — ^Apply  a  small  amount  to  affected  parts  once  daily. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  for  flatulent  colic  in  the  horse. 

For  Mr.  Smith's  gray  mare.  Jan.  3,  1914. 

Olei   terebinthinse    5  i j 

Spts.  ammonii  aromatici   §  j 

Olei  lini  qs.  ad O  ij 

M.  et  ft,  sol. 

Sig. — Give  at  one  time  as  a  drench. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  containing  at  least  three  drugs  for  a  case  of 
chronic  constipation  in  the  dog. 

For  John  Smith's  dog.  Jan.  3,  1914. 

Resinse  jalapse gr.  vj 

Extracti    belladonnse. 

Extracti  physostigmatis aa  gr.  iij 

M.  et  ft.  pilulae  No.  xxiv. 

Sig. — Give  one  pill  at  night. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 

Write  a  prescription  for  a  case  of  chrpnic  cough.     Use  at  least  three 
drugs. 

For  Mr.  Brown's  bay  mare.  Jan.  3,   1914. 

Fl.  ext.  belladonnae 5  ij 

Fl.  ext.  lobeliae    J  viij 

Acidi  hydrocyanici  diluti   g  i j 

Syrupus  simplicis  qs.  ad O  ij 

M. 

Sig. — Give   one   ounce   every   3    hours. 

John  Doe,  D.V.M. 
22 


338  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Toxicology 

Mention  three  poisons,  stating  the  antidote  for  each. 

1.  Corrosive  sublimate :  Antidote,  egg-albumin, 

2.  Arsenic:  Antidote,  freshly  prepared  hydrated  oxide  of  iron. 

3.  Phosphorus :  Antidote,  sulphate  of  copper. 

What  is  the  difference  between  antagonists  and  antidotes?  Give  an 
example  of  each. 

Antagonists  are  agents  which  counteract  each  other  in  their 
physiological  actions;  for  example,  strychnine  antagonizes  the  de- 
pressing effect  of  chloral  hydrate  on  the  heart.  In  this  respect  all 
antagonists  are  physiological  antidotes. 

Antidotes  are  agents  which  counteract  the  effects  of  a  poison  and 
.  render  it  harmless.  They  are  classified  as  chemical,  mechanical,  and 
physiological,  according  to  their  method  of  action.  Chemical  anti- 
dotes change  the  composition  of  the  drug,  as  starch  given  in  poison- 
ing by  iodine  forms  the  iodide  of  starch,  which  is  insoluble  and  inert. 
Mechanical  antidotes  surround  the  poison  and  protect  the  tissues 
from  its  action,  as  egg-albumin  protects  the  tissues  from  corrosive 
agents.    Physiological  antidotes  antagonize  the  action  of  the  poison. 

Give  the  symptoms  of  arsenic  poisoning.  Name  the  best  chemical 
antidote  for  arsenic  poisoning. 

Acute  arsenical  poisoning  is  shown  by  retching,  vomiting,  thirst, 
purging,  bloody  stools,  colicky  pains,  gastro-enteritis,  rapid  weak 
heart,  htematuria,  subnormal  temperature,  general  oedema,  delirium, 
collapse,  coma,  and  death. 

Chronic  form  is  characterized  by  indigestion,  thirst,  cachexia, 
enlargement  of  joints,  chronic  eczema,  and  necrosis  of  bones. 

The  best  chemical  antidote  for  arsenic  poisoning  is  the  freshly- 
prepared  hydrated  sesquioxide  of  iron. 

Name  an  antidote  for  Paris  green  and  tell  how  it  should  be  adminis- 
tered. 

Same  as  arsenic  (the  poisonous  action  of  Paris  green  is  due  to  the 
arsenic  it  contains).  The  antidote  should  be  given  every  fifteen 
minutes  in  doses  of  30  ounces  to  the  horse,  40  ounces  to  cattle,  and 
1  ounce  to  dogs,  until  relief  is  obtained. 

What  precautions  are  necessary  in  the  treatment  of  skin  diseases  of 

smaller  animals? 

Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  poisonous  drugs  or  any  drugs  in 

large  amounts  because  of  the  danger  of  absorption  and  also  the 

danger  of  the  animal  licking  the  medicine  off.     Coal-tar  products 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  339 

often  nauseate  and  cause  serious  conditions  in  eats  and  dogs  when 
applied  externally. 

What  are  the  symptoms  of  mercurial  poisoning?  Give  an  antidote  to 
mercury. 
The  symptoms  of  mercurialism  (hydrargyrism)  are :  salivation, 
ulcerous  stomatitis,  loosening  of  teeth,  blue  line  along  the  gums, 
gastro-enteritis,  bloody  diarrhoea,  cough,  nasal  discharge,  often 
blood-streaked,  weakness,  dizziness,  trembling,  delirium.  Acute 
form'  lasts  from  10  to  14  days.  Chronic  form  may  last  several 
weeks  or  even  months,  and  is  accompanied  by  extreme  wasting, 
chronic  eczema,  falling  hair,  and  lameness,  due  to  affections  of  the 
joints  and  muscles. 

Best  antidote  is  egg-albumin,  which  forms  the  insoluble  albu- 
minate of  mercury.  Sulphur  or  sulphur  compounds  also  form  in- 
soluble compounds  with  mercury. 

Give  the  symptoms  of  lead  poisoning  in  the  ox.  Prescribe  treatment  for 
lead  poisoning. 

Lead  poisoning,  also  called  plumbism  and  saturnism,  occurs  in 
acute  and  chronic  forms.  The  acute  form  is  rarely  seen,  and  is 
shown  by  intense  gastro-enteritis,  salivation,  retching,  paralysis, 
coma,  and  collapse.  The  chronic  form  is  characterized  by  emaciation, 
dyspnoea,  tonic  spasms  of  the  flexor  muscles  and  paralysis  of  the 
extensors  of  the  fore  limbs,  blue  line  along  the  gums,  anasmia, 
oedema,  colic,  constipation,  convulsions,  and  death. 

Treatment  in  acute  form  consists  of  the  administration  of  large 
doses  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  or  soda  to  form  the  insoluble  sulphate 
of  lead  and  to  hasten  the  emptying  of  the  alimentary  tract.  Give 
stimulants  and  apply  warmth  to  the  body. 

Chronic  form  is  treated  with  potassium  iodide,  after  having 
emptied  the  alimentary  tract.  Sulphates  may  be  given  in  small 
repeated  doses  to  assist  elimination  and  prevent  reabsorption. 

Describe  the  effects  of  a  poisonous  dose  of  aconite. 

Muscular  weakness,  dimness  of  sight,  mydriasis,  a  slow,  small, 
and  weak  pulse,  dyspnoea,  retching,  belching,  vomiting,  salivation, 
flatulence,  and  copious  sweating.  A  peculiar  clicking  sound  is  often 
observed,  due  to  the  irritation  of  the  throat  and  constant  attempts 
at  swallowing.  The  temperature  falls  two  or  three  degrees.  Death 
is  preceded  by  muscular  twitching,  loss  of  strength,  and  falling,  and 
is  due  to  paralysis  of  the  heart  and  respiration. 


340  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

How  should  a  case  of  poisoning  by  chloroform,  be  treated? 

Give  hypodermic  injections  of  strychnine  or  spirits  of  glonoin 
to  stimulate  the  heart.  Inhalations  of  ammonia  or  amyl  nitrite  have 
the  same  object  in  view.  Pull  the  tongue  forward  to  allow  free  en- 
trance of  air.  Attempt  artificial  respiration  by  rhythmically  com- 
pressing the  chest  with  the  knees,  feet,  or  hands.  Allow  plenty  of 
fresh  air. 

How  should  a  case  of  poisoning  by  chloral  hydrate  be  treated? 

Use  stomach-tube,  or  emetics  in  vomiting  animals.  Give  large 
doses  of  strychnine  and  atropine  subcutaneously.  Enemas  of  strong, 
hot  coffee  and  alcohol  are  useful.  Arouse  patient  by  shouting  and 
whipping.  Inhalations  of  ammonia  or  amyl  nitrite,  as  in  chloroform 
poisoning,  to  stimulate  the  heart. 

Give  the  symptoms  of  morphine  poisoning  and  state  the  antidotes. 

In  the  horse,  toxic  doses  of  morphine  cause  considerable  cerebral 
excitement  at  first,  but  later  depression,  loss  of  reflexes,  coma,  cold 
sweat,  slow  heart,  dilatation  of  the  pupil  (not  contracted,  "pin- 
point," as  in  other  animals  and  man),  lessened  urinary  secretion, 
and  death  by  suspension  of  respiration. 

Antidotes:  Potassium  permanganate  by  the  mouth,  atropine, 
and  strychnine  subcutaneously,  artificial  respiration ;  arouse  patient 
by  slapping  smartly.    Emetics  should  be  given  vomiting  animals. 

Give  the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  atropine  poisoning. 

Rapid  pulse  and  respiration,  elevated  temperature,  dryness  of 
mouth,  mydriasis,  excitement,  delirium,  muscular  twitchings,  fre- 
quent urination.  Later  the  temperature  falls,  the  urine  is  retained, 
convulsions  occur,  the  respiration  becomes  weak,  slow,  and  irregu- 
lar, death  occurs  from  cardiac  and  respiratory  failure.  A  few 
drops  of  the  urine  of  the  poisoned  animal  placed  in  the  eye  of  a 
healthy  animal  causes  mydriasis  and  aids  in  diagnosis. 

Treatment :  Stomach-pump,  emetics,  cardiac  stimulants.  Opiiuu 
and  pilocarpine  oppose  its  physiological  action.  Tannic  acid  should 
be  administered  as  the  chemical  antidote.  Apply  external  heat  in 
collapse,  and  give  strychnine  if  respiration  fails. 

Give  a  treatment  of  strychnine  poisoning  in  the  dog. 

Apomorphine  hydrochlorate,  V20  to  Vg  gi'ain  hypodermieally, 
is  the  best  and  surest  emetic. 

Give  potassium  bromide  2  to  4  drachms,  or  chloral  hydrate  20 
to  40  grains,  to  control  spasms.    Tannic  acid  is  a  chemical  antidote. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  341 

Serum  Therapy 
What  is  serum  therapy? 

Serum  tlierapy  is  a  method  of  producing  passive  immunity.  It 
consists  in  the  administration,  for  preventative  or  curative  purposes, 
of  a  blood-serum  containing  antitoxin  (antibodies)  or  some  other 
substance  which  is  antagonistic  to  the  bacterium  or  toxin  which 
causes  the  disease  in  question. 

Define  immunity.   What  is  meant  by  natural  and  acquired  immunity? 

Immunity  is  a  state  in  which  an  animal's  body  is  resistant  or 
insusceptible  to  a  certain  disease.  This  state  may  be  natural  or 
acquired. 

Natural  immunity  is  that  enjoyed  by  the  animal  from  birth,  and 
not  a  result  of  any  changes  during  its  lifetime.  If  the  immunity 
is  the  result  of  changes  during  the  animal's  lifetime,  it  is  spoken 
of  as  an  acquired  immunity. 

Acquired  immunity  may  be  active, — that  is,  obtained  by  an  in- 
dividual by  having  suffered  from  an  attack  of  a  pathogenic  micro- 
organism and  having  overcome  it;  or  it  may  be  passive, — that  is,  a 
result  of  the  injection  of  the  serum  of  an  animal  which  has  acquired 
an  active  immunity  against  the  organism  in  question. 

In  what  infectious  diseases  is  immunization  of  value? 

In  rabies,  tetanus,  black-quarter,  anthrax,  and  hog  cholera,  im- 
munization is  unquestionably  of  great  value.  Considerable  experi- 
mental work  has  been  done  on  immunization  in  the  following  dis- 
eases: hemorrhagic  septic£emia,  influenza,  dog  distemper,  Texas 
fever,  infectious  abortion,  glanders,  tuberculosis,  and  foot-and-mouth 
disease,  but  the  results  have  been  far  from  uniform  and  their  value 
is  still  suh  judice. 

Discuss  the  antitoxin  treatment. 

If  gradually  increasing  doses  of  the  toxins  of  a  pathogenic  micro- 
organism are  injected  into  an  animal,  the  animal  not  only  acquires 
an  immunity  to  the  particular  toxin,  but  its  blood-serum  will  an- 
tagonize or  neutralize  the  latter  if  they  are  brought  together.  If 
some  of  the  serum  of  this  immune  animal  is  injected  into  an  animal 
which  is  suffering  from  the  disease  caused  by  this  toxin,  it  will  antag- 
onize or  render  inert  some  or  all  of  the  toxin  and  thus  aid  in  the 
recovery  of  the  sick  animal.  The  substance  contained  in  the  immune 
sera  which  combines  with  and  neutralizes  the  toxin  is  called  an 
antitoxin. 

The  treatment  of  an  infectious  disease  with  a  specific  antiserum 
is  called  serum  therapy.      Diseases  treated  in  this  manner  are 


342  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

tetanus  and  diphtheria.     The  antitoxin  is  also  used  as  a  prophy- 
lactic agent. 

Define  amboceptors,  lysins,  complement. 

Amboceptors  are  antibodies  in  serum  which  possess  an  affinity 
for  both  the  complement  and  the  cell  to  be  destroyed  (a  bacterium 
or  a  red  blood-corpuscle),  and  which  serves  to  unite  the  two,  so 
that  lysis  or  destruction  of  the  cell  may  be  effected.  It  is  also 
called  the  immune  body. 

Lysins  are  specific  antibodies,  formed  in  the  blood-serum  during 
bacterial  infection,  which  are  destructive  to  the  bacteria  of  the  spe- 
cific serum.    They  are  probably  identical  with  agglutinins. 

Complement  is  a  thermolabile  (altered  or  destroyed  by  heat)  sub- 
stance in  normal  serum  which  is  destructive  to  bacteria  and  other 
cells  with  which  it  is  brought  in  contact  by  means  of  the  amboceptor. 

(For  further  details,  see  Diagnosis  of  Glanders  by  Complement- 
fixation  Test,  p.  167.) 

Discuss  the  serum  therapy  of  hog  cholera. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  serum  from  a  hog  which  has  recovered 
from  an  attack  of  hog  cholera  possesses  immunizing  and  curative 
properties  for  susceptible  hogs.  If  the  hog  which  has  recovered  is 
inoculated  with  the  virus  of  the  disease,  its  immunizing  and  curative 
properties  are  greatly  augmented,  although  the  hog  suffers  no  ill- 
ness. This  is  called  hyperimmunization.  The  hyperimmunized  hog 
is  bled,  the  blood  defibrinated,  and  a  small  amount  of  a  preservative 
(phenol)  is  added  to  insure  its  keeping  qualities. 

The  use  of  serum  as  a  curative  agent  is  only  of  value  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease.  The  serum  is  injected  subcutaneously  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  thigh  in  a  dose  of  approximately  40  c.c.  per  100 
pounds  of  body  weight.  In  recently  infected  or  non-infected  hogs 
a  passive  immunity  is  secured  which  lasts  only  a  few  weeks,  but  is 
sufficient  to  protect  against  the  effects  of  a  transient  exposure,  as  at 
fairs,  travelling,  etc. 

How  is  hog  cholera  serum  obtained? 

(See  answer  to  preceding  question.) 

Where  serum  is  produced  on  a  large  scale,  instead  of  utilizing 
hogs  which  have  survived  a  natural  infection,  susceptible  hogs  are 
used.  These  are  first  given  an  immunizing  dose  of  the  serum  as  a 
protective  measure  and  later  injected  with  gradually-increasing 
doses  of  virus  until  they  become  hyperimmune  (proven  by  test  on 
hogs) .  They  are  bled  from  the  tails  at  intervals  of  ten  days  so  long 
as  their  serum  is  potent.    They  may  then  be  injected  with  virus  and 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  343 

brought  to  the  hyperimmune  stage  again,  and  so  on  until,  from 
repeated  amputations,  their  tails  become  too  short  for  subsequent 
bleedings. 

What  is  meant  by  the  simultaneous  method  of  immunization  against 
hog  cholera? 
The  simultaneous  method  consists  of  the  inoculation  of  a  hog  with 
a  protective  dose  of  immune  serum  and  2  or  3  e.e.  of  virulent  blood 
at  the  same  time.  This  method  confers  an  immunity  which  will  last 
six  months  and  possibly  one  year.  But  it  is  not  a  practicable  method 
for  inexperienced  therapeutists,  because  of  the  danger  of  the  virus 
being  scattered. 

How  is  tetanus  antitoxin  obtained?     Discuss  its  use. 

Antitetauic  serum  is  obtained  from  a  horse  which  has  been  re- 
peatedly inoculated  with  gradually-increasing  amounts  of  tetanus 
toxin,  obtained  from  artificial  cultures.  Extremely  minute  doses 
of  the  toxin  are  given  at  first,  but  at  the  end  of  several  months  a 
pint  or  more  produces  no  ill-effect.  When,  by  test  on  guinea-pigs, 
the  serum  of  the  horse  is  of  the  desired  potency,  the  animal  is  bled 
from  the  jugular  at  intervals ;  the  serum  is  drawn  off  and  aseptically 
preserved. 

The  antitoxin  is  measured  in  units;  a  unit  representing  the 
amount  necessary  to  neutralize  a  given  amount  of  toxin,  as  proven 
on  guinea-pigs. 

Tetanus  antitoxin  is  a  valuable  prophylactic  or  immunizing 
agent.  It  should  be  administered  in  eases  of  infected  wounds  when- 
ever there  is  a  suspicion  that  tetanus  bacilli  may  be  present.  If 
given  before  the  symptoms  of  tetanus  appear,  750  units  seem  to  be 
sufficient  to  immunize.  This  immunity  lasts  but  a  few  weeks. 
There  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  regarding  its  value  as  a  cura- 
tive agent.  If  it  is  of  any  value  in  this  connection,  it  should  be 
given  early  and  in  large  doses.  There  is  no  definite  dosage ;  as  much 
as  5000,  and  even  30,000,  units  have  been  given  with  equally  varying 
results. 

Vaccine  Therapy 

What  is  vaccine  therapy? 

Vaccine  therapy  is  a  method  of  producing  an  active  immunity  by 
the  injection  of  bacteria,  or  the  products  of  bacterial  growth,  directly 
into  the  patient.  The  virulence  of  the  bacteria  is  modified  by  heat 
or  otherwise.  As  a  result  of  their  injection,  antitoxins  are  produced 
in  the  body.  This  is  in  contradistinction  to  serum  therapy,  which 
produces  a  passive  immunity.     (See  above.) 


344  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

What  is  (a)  a  vaccine,  (b)  a  bacterin. 

These  two  terms  are  being  used  synonymously  of  late,  although 
a  distinction  was  formerly,  and  should  now  be,  made. 

A  vaccine  is  the  modified  and  attenuated  virus  of  a  disease,  in- 
capable of  producing  a  severe  infection,  but  affording  protection 
against  the  action  of  the  unmodified  virus.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  emulsions  of  dead  bacteria.  Vaccines  are  designed  to  antagonize 
bacterial  infection,  either  in  advance  of  a  disease  (prophylactic,  as 
in  black-leg),  or  after  the  advent  of  the  disease  (therapeutic,  as  in 
the  use  of  vaccines  in  wound  infections). 

A  bacterin  is  an  emulsion  of  dead  cultures  of  specific  bacteria 
in  water  or  a  saline  solution,  administered  hypodermically  to  pro- 
duce an  active  immunity  against  the  particular  bacteria. 

What  is  meant  by  "  autogenous  vaccine  "? 

A  vaccine  derived  from  bacteria  taken  from  the  patient  infected 
and  intended  to  be  injected  into  the  same  individual.  It  is  far 
superior  to  the  "stock  vaccines,"  which  are  suspensions  of  bacteria 
derived  from  any  convenient  source  and  are  intended  to  be  used  in 
the  treatment  of  infections  due  to  the  same  organism  in  any 
individual. 

Discuss  bacterin  therapy. 

Same  as  vaccine  therapy,  described  above. 


SANITARY  SCIENCE— MEAT  AND 
MILK  HYGIENE 

Define  sanitary  science. 

Sanitary  science  deals  with  all  measures  designed  to  promote 
health  and  prevent  disease. 

How  can  sanitary  science  be  utilized  by  the  veterinarian? 

In  preventing  and  controlling  outbreaks  of  infectious  diseases  by 
a  systematic  inspection  of  buildings  and  surroundings  with  regard 
to  ventilation,  drainage,  construction,  etc. 

Describe  a  proper  method  of  drainage  for  a  stable. 

Stalls  should  not  slope  more  than  one-half  inch  toward  their 
centre,  and  a  similar  slope  from  before  backward  is  sufficient. 
A  shallow  gutter  running  back  of  the  stalls  should  be  conducted 
outside  and  into  a  trap  which  empties  into  the  sewer.  All  drains 
within  the  stable  should  be  on  the  surface  to  permit  of  ready  access. 

What  is  the  objection  to  building  a  stable  (a)  on  a  damp  northern 
slope,  (b)  in  a  deep,  narrow,  east  and  west  slope,  (c)  on  a 
springy,  hill-foot  or  on  other  wet  impervious  soil? 

(a)  There  would  be  insufficient  sunlight  to  evaporate  the  objec- 
tionable moisture. 

(b)  There  would  be  insufficient  sunlight  and  a  tendency  to 
dampness. 

(c)  It  would  be  difficult  to  secure  proper  drainage,  and  the 
dampness  would  be  detrimental  to  health. 

Mention  some  of  the  ways  by  which  impure  water  may  be  purified  or 
made  wholesome. 
Sand  filtration,  sedimentation,  and  boiling. 

What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  grain  feeding  as  regards  watering 
in  connection  with  the  grain? 

Give  the  water  before  feeding  grain;  otherwise,  the  stomach 
being  comparatively  small,  considerable  grain  will  be  washed 
through  into  the  intestines  in  an  undigested  condition.   . 

345 


346  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Define  proximate  principle.     Name  three  proximate  principles  and 
mention  a  common  food  substance  in  which  each  is  re- 
spectively contained. 
A  proximate  principle  is  a  substance  which  is  capable  of  being 
decomposed  into  simpler  principles  or  parts,  as  distinguished  from 
ultimate  principles  which  are  not  capable  of  further  division.    For 
example,  NaCl  is  a  proximate  principle  and  can  be  decomposed 
into  Na  and  CI,  which,  as  ultimate  principles,  cannot  be  further 
subdivided. 

Starch,  protein,  and  fat  are  proximate  principles  which  may  be 
decomposed  into  C,  0,  H,  etc.  A  common  food  substance  which 
contains  these  principles  is  oats. 

Air  and  Ventilation 

What  is  the  average  composition  of  (a)  atmospheric  air,  (b)  air  that 
has  been  breathed? 

(a)  Oxygen,  20.96;  nitrogen,  79.01;  carbon  dioxide,  0.03. 

(b)  Oxygen,  16.02;  nitrogen,  79.01;  carbon  dioxide,  4.38. 

At  what  stage  of  chemical  impurity  does  rebreathed  air  cause  oppres- 
sion and  at  what  stage  does  it  become  irrespirable? 
Air  becomes  oppressive  when  it   contains  only   11   per  cent, 
of  oxygen,  and  irrespirable  when  the  oxygen  falls  to  3  per  cent. . 

State  the  minimum  amount  of  air  space  that  should  be  provided  in  a 
stable  (a)  for  each  horse,  (b)  for  each  cow. 
This  all  depends  on  how  often  the  air  of  the  space  is  changed. 
A  horse  requires  15,000  cubic  feet  per  hour,  and  cattle  slightly  less. 
The  average  air  space  given  to  a  horse  is  1500  cubic  feet,  and  to  a 
cow  1200  cubic  feet.  In  the  case  of  the  horse,  the  air  would  need 
to  be  changed  ten  times  per  hour,  and  for  the  cow  about  twelve 
times. 

Does  air  space  greatly  in  excess  of  the  required  amount  render  the  ven- 
tilation of  a  stable  unnecessary?     Give  reason  for  your 
answer. 
No.    The  larger  the  air  space,  the  smaller  number  of  times  the 
air  of  that  space  needs  to  be  changed ;  but  once  the  impurities  are 
present,  they  remain  and  will  only  be  removed  by  supplying  fresh 
air. 

Describe  the  King  system  of  ventilation. 

Fresh  air  enters  through  openings  in  the  outside  wall,  three  or 
four  feet  below  the  ceiling,  passes  up  between  the  outside  and  the 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  347 

inside  wall  and  into  the  building  just  under  the  ceiling.  These 
intake  flues  should  be  4  inches  in  diameter  and  6  feet  apart  on  all 
four  sides  of  the  building.  Impure  air  passes  out  through  a  large 
ventilating  shaft,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  building,  and  ex- 
tending from  one  foot  above  the  floor  upward  through  the  ceiling. 
One  such  shaft,  two  feet  square,  is  sufficient  for  30  cows.  Its  top  is 
usually  provided  with  an  elbow-like  hood  which  keeps  out  rain  and 
swings  with  the  wind.  The  wind  creates  a  suction  which  favors 
the  circulation  of  air  upward  through  this  out-take  flue.  Near  the 
ceiling  there  is  an  opening  in  the  shaft  provided  with  a  door,  which 
is  only  opened  when  the  temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  building 
is  too  high. 

Infectious  Diseases 
What  hygienic  measures  should  be  employed  to  check  the  spread  of 
infectious  abortion  in  cattle? 
Segregation  of  infected  animals.     Thoroughly  disinfect  stables. 
Wash  the  external  genitals  of  all  pregnant  animals  daily  with  a 
non-irritating  antiseptic,  and  irrigate  their  vaginas  with  same.  Burn 
all  litter,  membranes,  and  expelled  foetuses.    Cleanse  the  penis  and 
sheath  of  each  male  which  has  covered  an  infected  female  by  irri- 
gating same  with  a  1  per  cent,  soda  solution,  or  Yo  per  cent,  lysol 
solution. 

Describe  the  hygienic  and  sanitary  precautions  that  should  be  observed 
in  a  case  of  glanders  occurring  in  a  large  livery  in  a  city. 
Apply  complement-fixation,  agglutination,  and  ophthalmic  tests. 
Destroy  all  reactors.  Burn  all  litter  and  thoroughly  disinfect  the 
stable,  harness,  utensils,  etc.  The  stable  should  be  quarantined  until 
tests  have  been  completed.  Any  animals  failing  to  react  should  be 
kept  under  suspicion  until  subsequent  tests,  applied  one  month  later, 
prove  them  to  be  free  from  the  disease. 

Outline  a  plan  for  thoroughly  disinfecting  stable  premises  that  have 
become  infected  by  the  presence  of  contagious  diseases. 
Cleanse  the  stable  thoroughly  by  removing  manure  and  piles  of 
fodder,  sweeping  the  ceilings,  walls,  and  floors,  removal  of  rotten 
woodwork  and  loose  boards,  especially  of  the  floor,  removal  of  dried 
accumulations  about  mangers,  floors,  and  drains;  burn  all  the 
removed  material;  scrub  the  mangers,  feed-boxes,  stalls,  partitions, 
harnesses,  utensils,  etc.,  with  hot  water  and  strong  soap,  lye,  or  wash- 
ing soda.  After  cleansing,  apply  a  chemical  disinfectant  with  a 
brush  or,  preferably,  with  a  spray  pump,  which  will  carry  it  into 
every  crevice   and  over  every  surface.     Bichloride   of   mercury, 


348  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

1-1000,  is  the  best  disinfectant.  Gutters  and  drains  may  be  flushed 
with  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron.  Dirt  floors  and  barn- 
yards containing  infected  material  should  be  excavated  to  a  depth 
of  six  inches  and  filled  in  with  new  earth.  Large  fields  may  be 
burned  over. 

Describe  in  detail  your  procedure  in  the  treatment  of  a  herd  of  cattle, 
a  part  of  which  you  have  discovered  to  be  infected  with 
tuberculosis. 
Separate  the  non-infected  from  the  infected  and  test  them  every 
three  months  for  the  first  year  and  thereafter  every  six  months. 
All  reacting  or  suspicious  cases  should  be  promptly  removed.    Reac- 
tors which  show  clinical  symptoms  should  be  destroyed.    Others  may 
be  kept  under  the  Bang  system.    Thoroughly  disinfect  the  infected 
premises. 

How  should  all  outbreaks  of  contagious  diseases  be  handled? 

By  reporting  promptly  to  the  local  or  State  authorities  handling 
such  affairs.  By  enforcement  of  proper  quarantine  and  attention  to 
disinfection. 

Describe  an  effective  method  of  disinfecting  a  ship  that  has  contained 
cattle  affected  with  anthrax. 
Send  the  boat  out  to  sea  not  less  than  forty  miles  from  land  and, 
beginning  at  the  lowest  occupied  deck,  have  all  excreta,  fodder,  fit- 
tings, etc.,  brought  up  and  thrown  overboard.  Then  turn  live  steam 
under  pressure  against  every  portion  of  the  ship 's  interior,  touching 
every  crevice,  nook,  and  corner.  The  bilge  should  be  pumped  out 
and  disinfected  with  bichloride  of  mercury  or  carbolic  acid. 

Mention  a  bacterium  that  is  very  resistant  to  the  action  of  disinfectants. 
Give  a  reason  for  your  answer. 
Bacterium  of  anthrax,  because  it  forms  spores  which  are  very 
resistant  to  the  strongest  disinfectants.    These  spores  under  favor- 
able conditions  develop  into  virulent  bacteria. 

Mention  five  ways  in  which  pathogenic  bacteria  may  be  disseminated 
from  diseased  to  healthy  animals. 
By  common  watering  and  feeding  troughs,  by  attendants,  by 
licking  one  another,  by  flies,  and  by  an  intermediate  host  (Texas- 
fever  tick). 

Mention  some  of  the  contributing  causes  of  contagious  and  zymotic 
diseases. 
Low-resisting  powers  due  to  previous  disease,  fatigue,  or  lack  of 
nourishment;  overcrowding,  poor  ventilation,  wounds. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  349 

State  the  sanitary  police  measures  necessary  to  prevent  the  spread  of 

dourine. 

All  affected  horses  should  be  excluded  from  breeding  again. 

Castration  would  be  advisable  as  a  safeguard.     Stallions  showing 

no  symptoms  but  having  covered  mares  affected  with  the  disease 

should  be  similarly  dealt  with. 

Describe  the  hygienic  measures  needful  for  the  prevention  of  cerebro- 
spinal meningitis. 
Especial  attention  should  be  given  to  the  food  and  water  supply. 
In  case  of  an  outbreak  of  the  disease  in  a  stable,  the  food,  water,  and 
pasture  should  be  changed  immediately.    Disinfect  stalls,  mangers, 
etc.,  which  have  been  used  by  affected  animals. 

Mention  the  measures  of  sanitary  police  that  would  be  needed  if  lung 

plague  (contagious  pleuropneumonia)  were  landed  on  our 

shores. 

Establish  quarantine  over  the  infected  area.    Kill  all  infected 

animals  and  destroy  carcasses  by  burning.    Prevent  any  movements 

of  cattle  into  or  out  of  the  quarantined  district  for  at  least  three 

months  after  the  last  case  appears.    Destroy,  by  burning  or  plowing 

under,  all  contaminated  litter,  and  thoroughly  disinfect  premises, 

as  well  as  all  boats,  cars,  etc.,  used  in  transporting  infected  animals. 

Describe  your  method  of  procedure  in  case  of  an  outbreak  of  anthrax 
in  a  herd  of  cattle. 
Isolate  the  sick  animals.  Kill  badly  diseased  ones,  but  avoid 
the  shedding  of  blood.  Destroy  carcasses  by  burning,  or  burying  in 
quicklime  at  least  five  feet  under  the  ground.  The  grave  should  be 
in  porous  soil,  far  from  any  pond  or  river,  and  it  should  be  fenced 
off  from  pastures.  Disinfect,  by  burning,  all  litter,  fodder,  manure, 
urine,  etc.,  and  flame  or  drench  with  strong  formalin  solution  all 
stalls,  and  utensils  used  about  the  animals.  Keep  the  remainder 
of  the  herd  immunized  by  vaccinating  annually  until  the  infection 
is  known  to  have  disappeared  from  the  premises.  The  sale  of  meat, 
milk,  hides,  or  other  products  from  infected  animals  should  be 
prohibited. 

Prophylaxis 
Describe  the  precautions  that  should  be  taken  by  the  national  and 
State  governments  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  foot-and- 
mouth  disease  into  this  country. 
A  certificate,  declaring  the  non-exposure  of  each  cloven-hoofed 
animal  imported  and  a  thorough  disinfection  of  all  litter,  fodder, 


350  YETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

halters,  cars,  boats,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  clothing  and  the  surface  of 
the  bodies  of  all  attendants  and  animals,  should  be  required  in  every 
case  of  an  importation  from  an  infected  country.  Such  animals 
should  be  held  in  quarantine  for  two  weeks. 

Describe  the  Bang  method  of  eradicating  tuberculosis  from  a  herd  of 
cattle. 
Slaughter  all  clinical  cases.  Apply  the  tuberculin  test  to  the 
remainder  of  the  herd.  Those  reacting  to  the  test  but  showing  no 
clinical  symptoms  are  removed  to  a  separate  stable.  (Perhaps  it 
would  be  better  to  remove  the  healthy  animals  to  new  or  non-infected 
quarters  and  leave  the  reactors  in  the  old  stable,  which,  in  either 
case,  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected.)  Promptly  remove  the  off- 
spring of  reactors  from  the  mother  and  feed  them  on  milk  from 
healthy  cows  or  on  sterilized  milk  of  the  mother.  The  non-reacting 
animals  and  all  offspring  should  be  tuberculin  tested  every  six 
months  and  any  reacting  animals  promptly  removed  and  their 
stalls  disinfected.  Every  avenue  of  infection  of  the  sound  herd 
must  be  guarded.  Thus  a  healthy  herd  may  be  built  up  from  a 
diseased  one. 

Define  disinfection.     Name  two  natural  and  five  chemical  disinfectants. 

Disinfection  is  the  act  of  destroying  microorganisms  in  or  on 
any  substance,  or  inhibiting  their  growth  and  vital  activity. 

Sunlight  and  heat  are  two  natural  disinfectants. 

Phenol,  corrosive  sublimate,  chloride  of  lime,  formaldehyde,  and 
oxalic  acid  are  chemical  disinfectants. 

What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  feeding  a  horse  that  is  kept  from 

work  two  or  three  days  on  account  of  lameness  or  injury? 

Why?     If  such  precautions  are  not  observed,  what  is  likely 

to  occur? 

The  amount  of  food  should  be  greatly  lessened  and  a  laxative 

diet  would  be  advisable,  because  the  vital  activities  are  lessened  and 

less  nourishment  is  required.    Azoturia  may  follow  rest  and  heavy 

feeding  in  plethoric  horses. 

What  factors  do  you  consider  important  in  the  prevention  of  contagious 
and  zymotic  diseases? 
Isolation,  quarantine,  disinfection,  and  protective  inoculations. 

Name  five  prophylactic  serums  or  vaccines  and  the  disease  against 
which  each  is  employed. 
Hog-cholera  serum  protects  against  hog  cholera. 
Tetanus  antitoxin  protects  against  tetanus. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  351 

Black-leg  vaccine  protects  against  black-leg. 

Anthrax  vaccine  protects  against  anthrax. 

Rabies  vaccine  protects  against  rabies. 
What  precautions  are  necessary  for  public  safety  in  an  outbreak  of 
rabies? 

Rigid  quarantine  for  100  days,  or  longer  if  necessary.  Muzzle 
all  dogs  over  a  wide  area.  All  stray  and  unmuzzled  dogs  should  be 
shot.  All  dogs  and  cats  that  have  been  bitten  by  a  rabid  animal 
should  be  destroyed  or  shut  up  in  iron  cages  for  six  months  under 
veterinary  supervision. 

Milk  and  Meat  Hygiene 
Mention  the  diseases  of  animals  that  render  their  flesh  unfit  for  human 

food. 

Unconditional.  Conditional. 

Extreme  emaciation.  Pregnancy. 

Exhaustion.  Local  inflammatory  changes. 

Enteritis.  Tumors. 

Peritonitis.  Hepatitis. 

Acute  nephritis.  Chronic  nephritis. 

Pneumonia.  Mammitis. 

Pleurisy.  Myocarditis. 

Leukaemia.  Endocarditis. 

Pseudotuberculosis.  Pericarditis. 

Anthrax.  Anaemia. 

Rabies.  Rachitis. 

Glanders.  Osteomalacia. 

Variola.  Parasitic  diseases. 

Tetanus.  Tuberculosis, 

^Malignant  oedema.  Actinomycosis. 

Septicaemia.  Botryomycosis. 

Pyaemia.  Swine  erysipelas. 

Black-leg.  Hog  cholera. 

Hemorrhagic  septicaemia.  Foot-and-mouth  disease. 
Uraemia. 

Parturient  paresis. 
Febrile  diseases. 

Name  ten  local  disease  conditions  that  do  not  call  for  rejection  of  the 
meat  for  human  food. 
Localized  tuberculosis,  actinomycosis  and  botryomycosis;  peri- 
carditis, benign  tumors,  chronic  nephritis,  dermatitis,  mange,  hemor- 
rhage, thrombosis. 

How  is  it  determined  at  slaughter  whether  a  tubercular  cow  is  fit  or 
unfit  for  human  consumption? 
B.  A.  I.  Order  No.  150,  Section  13,  Paragraph  2,  Rule  A,  reads 
as  follows :  ' '  The  entire  carcass  shall  be  condemned — 


352  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

"  (a)  When  there  is  a  tuberculous  or  other  cachexia,  as  shown  by 
angemia  and  emaciation. 

"(b)   When  the  lesions  of  tuberculosis  are  generalized.     .     .     . 

*'  (e)  When  the  lesions  of  tuberculosis  are  found  in  the  muscles 
or  intermuscular  tissue  or  bones  or  joints,  or  in  the  body  lymphatic 
glands  as  a  result  of  draining  the  muscles,  bones,  or  joints. 

''(d)  When  the  lesions  are  extensive  in  one  or  both  body  cavities. 

"(e)  When  the  lesions  are  multiple,  acute,  and  actively  pro- 
gressive. (Evidence  of  active  progress  consists  in  signs  of  acute 
inflammation  about  the  lesions,  liquefaction  necrosis,  or  the  pres- 
ence of  young  tubercles.) 

"Rule  B :  An  organ  or  a  part  of  a  carcass  shall  be  condemned— 

"  (a)  When  it  contains  lesions  of  tuberculosis. 

"(b)  When  the  lesion  is  immediately  adjacent  to  the  flesh,  as  is 
the  case  of  tuberculosis  of  the  parietal  pleura  or  peritoneum,  not  only 
the  membrane  or  part  affected  but  also  the  adjacent  thoracic  or 
abdominal  wall  is  to  be  condemned. 

"(c)  When  it  has  been  contaminated  by  tuberculous  material, 
through  contact  with  the  floor,  a  soiled  knife,  or  otherwise. 

"(d)  All  heads  showing  lesions  of  tuberculosis  shall  be  con- 
demned. 

"(e)  An  organ  shall  be  condemned  when  the  corresponding 
lymphatic  gland  is  tuberculous. 

' '  Rule  C :  The  carcass,  if  the  tuberculous  lesions  are  limited  to 
a  single  or  several  parts  or  organs  of  the  body  (except  as  noted  in 
Rule  A),  without  evidence  of  recent  invasion  of  tubercle  bacilli  into 
the  systemic  circulation,  shall  be  passed  after  the  parts  containing 
the  localized  lesions  are  removed  and  condemned  in  accordance  with 
Rule  B. 

' '  Rule  D :  Carcasses  which  reveal  lesions  more  numerous  than 
those  described  for  carcasses  to  be  passed  (Rule  C) ,  but  not  so  severe 
as  the  lesions  described  for  carcasses  to  be  condemned  (Rule  A),  may 
be  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow  if  the  distribution  of  the  lesions  is 
such  that  all  parts  containing  tuberculous  lesions  can  be  removed. 
Such  carcasses  shall  be  cooked  by  steam  at  a  temperature  not  lower 
than  220°  Fahrenheit  for  not  less  than  four  hours." 

What  points  determine  whether  a  case  of  tuberculosis  is  generalized 
or  local  ? 
The  term  "localized  tuberculosis"  is  applied  to  cases  where 
there  is  an  infection  of  a  single  part  of  the  body  with  the  corre- 
sponding lymph-glands,  or  the  infection  of  several  parts  of  the 
body  without  the  concurrence  of  the  large  circulatory  system. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  353 

''Generalized  tuberculosis"  is  a  term  applied  in  cases  where  a 
part  of  the  body  is  affected  to  which  the  tubercle  bacilli  can  be 
taken  by  the  arterial  blood  only  (e.g.,  spleen,  kidneys,  suprarenal 
glands,  testicles,  ovaries,  udder,  bones,  muscle,  body  lymph-glands, 
central  nervous  system,  eyes,  etc.).  The  presence  of  numerous 
foci  in  the  lungs  positively  indicates  infection  of  the  blood  and 
therefore  is  quite  indicative  of  generalized  tuberculosis. 

What  is  "  bob  veal  "  ?  How  is  it  detected  and  is  it  deleterious  to  human 
health? 

"Bob  veal"  is  immature  veal  (veal  from  calves  under  three 
weeks  of  age) .  The  meat  is  watery,  tender,  easily  torn,  and  grayish- 
red  in  color ;  shows  only  slight  muscular  development,  especially  in 
the  region  of  the  upper  shank.  The  tissue,  which  later  develops  as 
the  fat  capsule  of  the  kidneys,  is  cedematous,  dirty  yellow,  or  grayish- 
red,  and  tough.  The  lumen  of  the  navel  vein  is  wide  open  and  filled 
with  liquid  blood.  A  chemical  test  will  show  an  abnormal  amount 
of  glycogen  present  in  the  muscles. 

It  is  generally  considered  that  calves  under  three  weeks  of  age 
are  unfit  for  human  food,  and  our  Federal  regulations  provide  for 
their  condemnation.  Yet,  in  Germany,  calves  only  three  to  four 
days  old  are  frequently  slaughtered  for  food,  are  considered  a 
delicacy,  and  apparently  are  not  detrimental  to  the  health  of  the 
consumers. 

Name  ten  inflammatory  and  five  non-inflammatory  diseases. 

Inflammatory :  Pneumonia,  pleurisy,  rhinitis,  enteritis,  gastritis, 
peritonitis,  hepatitis,  nephritis,  arthritis,  and  pericarditis. 

Non-infiammatory :  Pernicious  ansemia,  leukaemia,  chronic  hy- 
drocephalus, nasal  polypi,  tetanus. 

Give  the  life-cycle  of  cystercus  cellulosae.     What  disease  does  it  cause? 

What  disposition  should  be  made  o£  a  carcass  affected  with 

this  parasite? 
The  mature  form  of  this  parasite  is  the  Taenia  solium,  a  tape- 
worm of  man.  The  ova  are  passed  in  the  feces  and  become  dis- 
seminated through  the  water  or  food  and  are  taken  in  by  the  inter- 
mediate host,  the  hog  In  the  hog's  stomach  the  ovum  hatches  into 
a  six-hooked  embryo,  which  finds  its  way  through  the  stomach  and 
intestinal  walls  and  enters  the  muscular  tissues.  There  it  develops 
into  the  larval  stage,  becomes  encysted,  and  either  perishes  in  time 
or  is  eaten  by  man.  If  the  cyst  containing  the  living  larva  is  eaten  by 
man,  the  larva  becomes  liberated  and  attaches  itself,  by  means  of  its 
booklets,  to  the  intestinal  wall  and  develops  into  the  mature  form. 
23 


354  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Pork  which  contains  these  cysts  is  called  "measly  pork,"  and  if 
badly  affected  should  be  condemned.  Carcasses  showing  slight 
lesions  may  be  passed  for  lard. 

Where  and  how  would  you  look  for  "  measly  pork  "? 

With  the  naked  eye  the  cysts  may  be  seen  in  the  intermuscular 
tissue  of  the  heart,  tongue,  larynx,  abdomen,  diaphragm,  flanks, 
jaws,  neck,  sternum,  intercostal  region,  and  adductors  of  the  hind 
legs.  In  case  of  doubt,  a  microscopic  examination  will  help  in  ascer- 
taining the  presence  or  absence  of  the  larva  with  its  hooked  scolex. 

Explain  the  necessity  of  municipal  and  State  meat  inspection. 

To  prevent  the  spread  of  diseases  communicable  from  animals  to 
man  and  to  safeguard  the  public  from  unclean  and  unhealthy  meat. 
A  considerable  amount  of  our  local  meat  supply  is  slaughtered 
without  inspection.  One  or  more  properly-inspected  municipal  abat- 
toirs should  be  conducted  in  or  near  every  city,  where  all  slaughter- 
ing of  animals  should  be  performed.  State  meat  inspectors  should 
look  after  the  smaller  localities. 

Mention  the  principal  diseases  of  domestic  animals  that  are  com- 
municable to  man. 

Anthrax.  Actinomycosia. 

Rabies.  Botryomycosis. 

Glanders.  Tuberculosis. 

Foot-and-mouth  disease.  Pseudotuberculosis. 

Variola.  Septicaemia. 

Tetanus.  Pyaemia. 
Malignant  oedema. 

Name  four  physiological  conditions  that  would  render  beef  unfit  for 
food. 
1.  Immaturity.      2.  Advanced    pregnancy.      3.  Strong    sexual 
odor.    4.  Within  ten  days  after  parturition. 

Is  a  carcass  affected  with  mange  fit  for  human  food? 

Carcasses  which  show  advanced  lesions  associated  with  emacia- 
tion should  be  condemned.    Mild  cases  are  passed  for  food. 

What  is  trichinosis?    How  detected?    State  the  disposition  that  should 
be  made  of  a  carcass  affected  with  trichinosis. 
A  disease  of  hogs  (and  man)  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  larval 
form  of  the  parasite.  Trichina  spiralis,  in  the  muscles.    (The  mature 
worm  infests  the  intestinal  tract  and  causes  intestinal  trichinosis.) 

A  careful  microscopical  examination  is  necessary  in  order  to 
detect  trichina  in  pork. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  355 

Badly-infested  carcasses  should  be  destroyed.  Mild  eases  should 
be  rendered  into  lard,  smoked,  pickled,  or  salted  to  destroy  the 
parasite. 

What  is  cold  slaughtered  beef  and  how  is  it  detected? 

Cold  slaughtered  beef  is  that  from  a  carcass  of  a  dead  unslaugh- 
tered  animal.  Fraudulent  attempts  are  made  to  give  the  carcass 
the  appearance  of  a  normally  slaughtered  animal  by  performing 
the  sticking  or  cutting  on  post-mortem.  This  can  be  detected  by  the 
absence  of  bloody  infiltration  of  the  edges  of  the  wound,  improper 
bleeding,  and  perhaps  evidence  of  post-mortem  decomposition. 

What  is  your  opinion  about  ante-mortem  examination  of  animals  used 
for  food? 
It  is  very  desirable,  but  should  not  supplant  the  post-mortem 
inspection.  B}^  it  many  diseases  of  animals  may  be  detected  and 
the  contamination  of  slaughter-houses  avoided,  not  to  mention  the 
safeguarding  of  the  public  health.  Certain  diseases,  such  as  scabies, 
rabies,  tetanus,  etc.,  which  show  slight  or  no  lesions  on  post 
mortem  can  be  readily  diagnosed  on  ante-mortem  examination. 

What  is  the  average  composition  of  cow's  milk? 

Water    87.00  Proteids 3.30 

Solids 13.00  Fat   4.00 

Lactose    4.95 

Salts    75 

State  the  hygienic  precautions  that  should  be  observed  in  managing  a 
dairy  from  which  milk  is  sold  daily. 

' '  Cleanliness ' '  is  the  keynote. 

Stable:  Well  drained,  ventilated,  and  lighted. 

Cows :  Healthy,  well  fed  and  cared  for,  and  clean. 
.  Milking :  The  milkers  should  be  healthy  and  tidy. 

Care  of  milk :  Promptly  remove  milk  from  the  stable  and  cool  it 
to  45°  F.,  and  keep  it  at  this  temperature. 

Utensils:  Should  be  all  metal  and  cleansed  daily  by  washing 
and  sterilizing  with  steam  or  boiling  water. 

Water  supply :  Should  be  of  unquestioned  purity. 

What  is  meant  by  certified  milk?  Mention  the  conditions  in  the  pro- 
duction and  care  necessary  to  warrant  the  certification  of 
the  milk  from  a  particular  dairy. 

Certified  milk  is  that  which  is  produced  so  as  to  conform  to  the 
requirements  of  a  legal  contract  between  a  medical  milk  commission 


356  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

and  a  dairyman.  Although  subject  to  slight  variations  (principally 
with  regard  to  the  maximum  bacterial  and  minimum  butter-fat 
content),  the  conditions  are  as  follows :  The  milk  must  be  clean  and 
wholesome  and  obtained  from  healthy  cows  which  are  kept  in  sani- 
tary quarters,  fed  wholesome  feed,  and  given  pure  water.  It  must  be 
drawn  from  clean  cows  by  clean,  healthy  attendants  into  clean  recep- 
tacles and  in  a  clean  atmosphere.  It  must  be  handled  in  a  clean 
manner,  cooled  quickly,  put  into  sterile  receptacles,  placed  in  cold 
storage,  and  iced  in  transportation  when  necessary.  The  bacterial 
content  must  not  exceed  10,000  per  c.c,  and  the  fat-content  must 
equal  or  exceed  4  per  cent. 

Name  some  of  the  diseases  that  may  be  transmitted  through  the 
medium  of  milk. 
Typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  tuberculosis,  foot-and- 
mouth  disease,  actinomycosis,  anthrax,  cholera  infantum,  etc. 

Describe  the  dangers  of  infection  to  man  through  the  consumption  of 
cow's  milk,  covering  (a)  infection  from  bovine,  (b)  infec- 
tion from  germs  added  to  the  liquid  during  or  after  milking. 
How  may  these  dangers  be  guarded  against? 

(a)  Tuberculosis,  actinomycosis,  foot-and-mouth  disease,  and 
anthrax  may  be  transmitted  from  the  cow  to  man  through  the  milk. 
Strict  veterinary  supervision  of  the  herd  should  eliminate  these 
dangers. 

(b)  Diphtheria,  tuberculosis,  scarlet  fever,  and  typhoid  fever 
may  enter  the  milk  during  or  after  milking.  To  guard  against  this 
danger,  the  milker  and  milker's  family  should  be  free  from  infec- 
tious diseases.  All  bottles  or  other  receptacles  returned  from  houses 
holding  cases  of  contagious  diseases  should  be  carefully  sterilized 
or,  better,  destroyed.  Dogs  and  cats  carry  disease  germs,  and  should 
be  Excluded  from  the  stable  and  dairy-house.  The  water  supply 
should  be  pure. 

State  in  what  way  milk  may  become  a  means  of  transmitting  the  germs 
of  typhoid  fever. 
The  milk  may  become  infected  with  the  typhoid  bacillus  through 
flies,  dust,  contact  with  human  patients  suffering  from  this  disease, 
cows  wading  in  filth  containing  bowel  and  urinary  discharges  of 
human  beings  and  contaminating  the  udder  with  germs  of  typhoid 
fever  and  thus  conveying  them  to  the  milk ;  the  water  supply  to  the 
milk-house ;  bottles  returned  from  houses  holding  typhoid  patients. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  357 

How  is  milk  tested  for  the  presence  of  (a)  boric  acid,  (b)  salicylic 
acid,  and  (c)  sodium  bicarbonate? 

(a)  Add  to  a  few  drops  of  milk,  contained  in  a  white  dish,  a  drop 
or  two  of  h^^drochloric  acid,  and  then  several  drops  of  a  saturated 
alcoholic  solution  of  turmeric.  Heat  the  dish  gently  for  a  few 
minutes,  and  if  boric  acid  or  borax  is  present,  a  pink  or  dark-red 
color  will  appear.  Cool,  and  add  a  drop  of  ammonia,  when  a  dark- 
blue  or  green  color  should  be  seen. 

(b)  Add  two  or  three  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  to  20  c.c.  of  milk 
and  then  shake  gently  with  20  c.c.  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
ether  and  petrolic  ether.  Then,  after  standing  for  several  hours, 
the  upper  ethereal  solution  is  poured  off  and  the  remaining  liquid 
is  evaporated  in  a  porcelain  evaporating  dish.  Add  to  the  residue 
a  few  drops  of  water,  and  if  salicylic  acid  is  present  a  violet  or 
purple  color  will  be  produced  on  adding  a  drop  of  a  ferric  chloride 
solution. 

(c)  Add  to  the  suspected  milk  an  equal  volume  of  alcohol  and 
two  drops  of  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  rosalic  acid.  If  sodium  bicar- 
bonate is  present,  a  red-rose  color  will  appear. 

Classify  milk  from  the  stand-point  of  its  number  of  harmless  bacteria. 

Class  1.  Certified  milk :  not  over  10,000  bacteria  per  cubic  centi- 
metre. 

Class  2.  Inspected  milk:  not  over  100,000  bacteria  per  cubic 
centimetre. 

Class  3.  Pasteurized  milk:  none,  or  a  variable  low  number  of 
bacteria. 

What  is  pasteurized  milk? 

jMilk  which  has  been  heated  to  a  temperature  below  the  boiling- 
point  but  sufficiently  high  to  destroy  all  pathogenic  microorganisms 
(140°  F.,  or  46°  C.  for  30  minutes ;  150°  F.,  or  65°  C.  for  20  minutes ; 
160°  F.,  or  70°  C.  for  10  minutes).  This  should  be  done  as  soon  as 
practicable  after  milking  in  inclosed  vessels,  preferably  the  final 
containers,  and  after  such  heating  immediately^  cooled  to  a  tempera- 
ture not  exceeding  50°  F.,  or  10°  C. 


'o 


Give  a  test  to  prove  that  milk  has  been  pasteurized. 

Pasteurization  cannot  be  proven  unless  the  milk  has  been  heated 
to  170°  F.,  or  over,  because  this  temperature  is  necessary  to  destroy 
the  ferments  upon  which  the  test  depends. 

Storch's  test:  Add  to  5  c.c.  of  milk  two  drops  of  a  freshly- 
prepared  2  per  cent,  solution  of  paraphenylenediamine  hydrochlor- 


358  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

ide,  and  then  one  drop  of  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  hydrogen  dioxide. 
Unheated  milk  gives  a  blue  color  when  thus  treated,  but  milk  heated 
to  170°  F.  gives  no  color. 

Arnold's  guaiac  test:  Add,  drop  by  drop,  a  little  tincture  of 
guaiac  to  a  small  amount  of  milk  in  a  test-tube.  If  the  milk  has  not 
been  heated  to  80°  C  (170°  F.),  a  blue  zone  is  formed  between  the 
two  fluids ;  heated  milk  gives  no  reaction,  but  remains  white. 

Give  a  test  for  formaldehyde  in  milk. 

Place  about  20  c.c.  of  milk  in  a  small  glass  vessel,  dilute  with 
an  equal  volume  of  water,  and  add,  by  pouring  slowly  down  the 
inside  of  the  vessel,  a  small  amount  of  90  per  cent,  commercial  sul- 
phuric acid.  If  formaldehyde  is  present,  a  purple  or  bluish  zone  will 
appear  at  the  junction  of  the  acid  and  milk.  If  no  formaldehyde  is 
present,  a  faint,  slightly  greenish  ring  forms.  This  test  will  detect 
formaldehyde  even  if  present  in  as  small  proportion  as  1  in  200,000. 

Name  the  common  preservatives  used  in  milk. 

Boric  acid,  salicylic  acid,  formalin,  benzoic  acid,  potassium 
bichromate. 

Give  the  cause  for :  (a)  ropy  milk,  (b)  bitter  milk,  (c)  blue  milk,  (d) 
red  milk,  (e)  suppression  of  the  milk,  (f)  pus  in  the  milk. 

(a)  Inflammation  of  the  udder  may  cause  ropy  milk,  but  in  the 
majority  of  cases  it  is  due  to  B.  lactus  viscosus. 

(b)  Eating  of  certain  foods  by  cows  (lupines,  ragweed,  cab- 
bages, Swedish  turnips)  ;  it  occurs  in  old  milk  due  to  growth  of 
germs. 

(c)  Bacillus  cyanogenus. 

(d)  A  mixture  of  blood:  B.  prodigiosus.  Rarely  due  to  eating 
of  pigmented  plants. 

(e) Mastitis,  severe  febrile  diseases,  certain  drugs  such  as  bella- 
donna, idodine,  camphor,  alum,  etc. 

(f) Mastitis.  (A  small  number  of  leucocytes  is  often  found  in 
milk  from  apparently  healthy  cows.)  Prolonged  retention  of  milk 
in  the  udder  gives  rise  to  an  increased  leucocyte  content. 

Describe  briefly:  (a)  sanitary  farm,  (b)  sanitary  barn,  (c)  sanitary 
milk-house. 

(a)  A  sanitary  farm  is  one  that  is  located  sufficiently  high  to 
have  good  drainage,  and  that  is  free  from  germs  of  infectious 
diseases. 

(b)  A  sanitary  barn  is  one  provided  with  good  drainage,  venti- 
lation, and  light,  and  pure  water  supply;  it  has  the  necessary 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  359 

amount  of  air  space  per  animal,  and  is  clean  and  free  from  germs 
of  infectious  diseases. 

(e)  A  sanitary  milk-house  is  so  constructed  that  it  can  be 
readily  disinfected  throughout  with  boiling  water  or  steam.  All 
apparatus  used  in  it  should  be  of  metal  as  far  as  practicable  so  as  to 
permit  of  thorough  sterilization.  Good  drainage,  ventilation,  and 
a  supply  of  pure  water  are  essential.  It  should  be  well  fitted  with 
all  apparatus  necessary  for  the  proper  handling,  cooling,  and  storing 
of  milk. 

How  is  a  quantitative  bacterial  analysis  of  milk  made  ? 

A  cubic  centimetre  of  milk  is  diluted  with  sterile  water  and 
mixed  witli  melted  nutrient  agar.  This  mixture  is  poured  in  a 
Petri  dish,  allowed  to  cool,  and  then  placed  in  an  incubator  for  24 
hours.  Each  bacterium  grows  and  produces  one  colony.  By  count- 
ing the  colonies  and  multiplying  the  result  by  the  dilution,  the  num- 
ber of  bacteria  per  cubic  centimetre  is  determined. 

What  is  the  significance  of  the  presence  of  streptococci  in  milk? 

This  question  is  subject  to  great  dispute.  Most  authorities  are 
agreed  that  any  number  of  streptococci  in  excess  of  the  ordinary 
number  found  in  milk  calls  for  an  investigation  of  the  dairy  supply- 
ing the  milk,  looking  particularly  for  mammitis,  and  contamination 
with  dirt,  especially  manure. 

Name  the  microorganism  that  causes  milk  to  become  sour. 
B.  lactis  acidi. 

What  is  the  difference  between  pasteurized,  sterilized  and  certified 
milk? 

Pasteurized  milk  has  been  heated  to  a  temperature  below  the 
boiling-point  but  sufficiently  high  to  destroy  nearly  all  living  micro- 
organisms, or  at  least  to  check  their  growth.  (Ninety-five  to  ninety- 
eight  per  cent,  of  all  bacteria  are  destroyed  by  pasteurization.) 

Sterilized  milk  is  free  from  all  bacteria  and  spores.  Sterilization 
is  usually  accomplished  by  heating  the  milk  to  the  boiling-point.  By 
this  process  the  milk  is  altered  in  composition  and  taste,  and  there- 
fore it  is  objectionable  as  a  commercial  product. 

Certified  milk  is  produced  under  such  cleanly  methods  as  to 
contain  a  very  low  number  of  non-pathogenic  bacteria:  not  over 
10,000  per  cubic  centimetre. 


ZOOTECHNICS 

What  is  zootechnics?     What  subjects  are  included  in  the  study  of 
zootechnics  ? 
Zootechnies  refers  to  the  breeding,  keeping  and  general  manage- 
ment of  domesticated  animals.    It  includes  a  study  of  breeds,  breed- 
ing, feeds,  feeding,  conformation,  type,  soundness,  etc. 

Give  a  definition  for  the  following  terms:  protein,  fat,  carbohydrates, 
balanced  ration,  crude  fibre. 

Protein  refers  to  the  nitrogen  compounds  in  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal foods.  About  16  per  cent,  of  protein  substances  consist  of 
nitrogen. 

Fat  is  an  important  constituent  of  foods.  Its  presence  is  deter- 
mined by  submitting  the  feeding-stuff  to  the  action  of  ether,  which 
dissolves  fat.  It  is  often  called  ether-extract  and  is  found  in  seeds 
more  than  in  coarse  foods.  Cotton-seed  and  flax-seed  are  especially 
oleaginous. 

Carbohydrates  are  compounds  that  are  important  constituents 
of  food.  They  are  made  up  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen ;  the 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  being  in  the  proportion  to  form  water.  They 
are  non-nitrogenous  compounds  and  are  present  in  large  proportions 
in  all  the  common  fodders,  in  the  form  of  starch,  sugar,  cellulose, 
etc. 

A  balanced  ration  is  one  which  contains  the  different  nutrients 
in  the  proper  proportions  to  meet  the  physiological  requirements  of 
the  animal,  with  the  least  waste  of  nutrients. 

Crude  fibre  is  the  tough  or  woody  part  of  plants.  It  consists 
mainly  of  cellulose  and  is  especially  abundant  in  hay  and  straw. 

What  would  constitute  a  normal  day's  ration  for  a  1200-pound  horse? 

The  following  rations  should  meet  the  needs  of  a  1200-pound 

horse,  doing  moderate  work : 

1                 2  3 

10  pounds  hay.  10  pounds  liay.  10  pounds  hay. 

0  pounds  corn.  10  pounds  oata.  G  pounds  oats. 

7  pounds  wheat  bran.  5  pounds  wh.  bran.  C  pounds  corn. 

360 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  361 

From  the  following  list  of  hay,  grains  and  concentrates,  subdivide  those 
best  suited  for  dairy  cattle,  beef  cattle,  horses,  sheep  and 
swine:  Hay — timothy,  common  red  clover  and  alfalfa; 
grains — peas,  oats,  barley  and  rye ;  concentrates — bran,  cot- 
ton-seed meal,  oil  cake  and  gluten  meal. 
Dairy  cattle :  Clover  hay,  alfalfa,  barley,  bran,  cotton-seed  meal, 
oil  cake,  and  gluten. 

Beef  cattle :  Clover  hay,  rye,  bran,  cotton-seed  meal,  and  gluten. 
Horses :  Timothy  hay,  alfalfa,  oats,  bran,  and  barley. 
Sheep :  Clover  hay,  alfalfa,  bran,  cotton-seed  meal,  gluten,  and 
oil  cake. 

Swine :  Clover  hay,  peas,  barley,  and  bran. 

Define  the  following  terms :  hereditary,  prepotency,  in-breeding,  cross- 
breeding, thoroughbred  and  grade. 

Hereditary  refers  to  diseases  or  qualities  which  are  derived  from 
ancestry  or  obtained  by  inheritance. 

Prepotency  is  a  quality  possessed  by  certain  individuals,  by 
reason  of  which  they  have  greater  power  than  the  other  parent  in 
transmitting  inheritable  characters  to  the  offspring. 

In-hreeding  is  a  form  of  line-breeding  which  involves  the  breeding 
together  of  sire  and  offspring  or  dam  and  offspring  or  of  brother  and 
sister.    , 

Cross-hreeding  refers  to  the  combining  of  ancestral  lines  of  two 
distinct  races,  breeds,  or  varieties. 

The  term  thoroughhred  refers  to  a  specific  breed  of  horses  (the 
English  race-horse)  which  are  noted  for  speed  and  endurance. 

The  term  grade  is  applied  to  an  offspring  resulting  from  the 
mating  of  a  common  or  unimproved  parent  with  one  more  highly 
improved,  a  "pure-bred." 

What  is  atavism?     Give  an  example. 

Atavism  is  the  inheritance  of  characteristics  from  remote,  but  not 
from  the  immediate,  ancestors.  In  breeding  pure-bred  animals  we 
occasionally  obtain  an  offspring  which  is  off-color  or  off-type  and 
resembles  a  very  remote  ancestor.  The  peculiar  color  or  type  may 
not  have  been  shown  in  several  generations. 

Name  the  various  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  and  wool  sheep. 

Dairy  cattle:  Holstein-Friesians,  Jerseys,  Guernseys,  and 
Ayrshires. 

Wool  sheep:  ]\Ierinos,  Southdowns,  Shropshires,  Oxfords,  Dor- 
sets,  Leicesters,  Cotswolds,  and  Lincolns. 


362  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

What  points  should  be  especially  considered  in  the  selection  of  animals 
for  breeding  purposes? 
We  should  consider  the  individual  and  its  ancestry,  noting 
particularly  that  the  high  standard  of  the  ancestors  has  been  main- 
tained in  each  individual  in  the  line  of  parentage.  "Like  begets 
like ' ' ;  therefore,  the  desirable,  as  well  as  the  undesirable,  points  of 
the  selected  animal  are  likely  to  be  transmitted  to  the  offspring. 

What  influence  on  the  offspring  does  heredity  play  and  what  environ- 
ment? 

Heredity  should  not  be  considered  from  the  stand-point  of  the 
individuals  mated  only,  but  of  the  race  as  a  whole.  Consider  the 
ancestors  and  the  desirable  characteristics  which  they  uniformly 
possessed.  From  individuals  whose  ancestry  has  shown  a  uniform- 
ity of  certain  characteristics  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  these 
points  will  be  transmitted  to  offspring.  Among  the  characteristics 
inherited  are :  conformation,  type,  color,  temperament,  milk-pro- 
duction, wool-production,  speed,  endurance,  style,  action,  etc. 

Environment,  likewise,  deserves  general  consideration.  The 
effect  of  environment  on  the  immediate  offspring  is  of  little  impor- 
tance. Insufficient  food,  overwork,  and  improper  care  may  result 
in  the  production  of  an  individual  offspring  of  inferior  size  and 
development.  But  the  succeeding  generation  may  lack  in  neither  of 
these  respects.  However,  if  a  great  number  of  generations  are 
kept  in  the  same  improper  environment,  there  will  be  a  tendency 
toward  retrogression. 

What  is  the  value  of  a  pedigree  and  upon  what  does  it  depend  ? 

A  pedigree  is  a  record  of  ancestry,  and  its  value  depends  upon  the 
reputation  of  the  ancestors.  If  the  ancestors  for  five  or  six  genera- 
tions back  have  been  individuals  of  a  uniformly  good  character,  the 
pedigree  is  valuable,  and  the  individual,  which  it  represents,  is 
desirable  as  a  breeding  animal.  On  the  contrary,  if  there  has  been 
a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  previous  generations,  the  pedigree  is  of 
little  account,  and  the  individual  is  more  or  less  undesirable  as  a 
factor  in  breeding. 

An  ideal  pedigree  would  be  one  which  contains  definite  infor- 
mation regarding  the  merits  and  demerits  of  the  individuals 
recorded. 

Name  the  conditions  of  the  tarsus  that  cause  unsoundness. 

Arthritis  chronica  deformans,  curb,  bog-spavin,  and  thorough- 
pin. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS"  '  363 

What  unsoundnesses  in  horses  may  be  regarded  as  sufficient  cause 
for  disqualification  of  animals  by  judges  in  the  show  ring? 

Some  judges  disqualify  horses  which  show  lameness  from  any 
cause  whatsoever.  But  it  would  seem  more  logical  to  disqualify 
only  those  in  which  the  lameness  is  due  to  structural  changes  in  the 
limbs,  such  as  ring-bone,  navicular  bursitis,  spavin,  curb,  splints, 
quittor,  laminitis,  tendonitis,  shoulder,  hip  and  stifle  lameness,  etc., 
and  to  ignore  temporary  lameness  due  to  nail-wounds,  corns,  thrush, 
etc. 

Other  recognized  unsoundnesses  are :  roaring,  heaves,  periodic 
ophthalmia,  blindness,  infectious  diseases  (glanders,  influenza, 
dourine,  etc.),  osteoporosis,  congenital  malformations  (cryptorchid- 
ism, monorchidism,  hernice,  etc.),  chronic  hydrocephalus  and  vicious 
habits. 

What  diseases  are  hereditary  in  horses?  Mention  faulty  conforma- 
tions that  predispose  to  unsoundness  in  horses. 

The  consensus  of  opinion  would  indicate  that  there  are  few,  if 
any,  hereditary  diseases.  But  there  is  no  doubt  about  the  transmis- 
sion of  defects  in  conformation.  Among  the  latter  should  be 
mentioned : 

9 

Ourby  hocks.  Base  narrow. 

Narrow  hocka.  Toe  wide. 

Knee-sprung.  Toe  narrow. 

Calf-knees.  Narrow,  long-coupled  back. 

Short,  upright  pasterns.  Small,  deep-set  eyes. 

Base  wide.  Narrow  forehead. 

These  defects  predispose  to  unsoundness. 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  milch  cow? 

Head:  Small  and  clean  cut;  muzzle  large;  forehead  straight  or 
concave ;  small  horns ;  eyes  bright  and  prominent. 

Neck:  Long  and  thin. 

Body:  Soft,  fine,  thick  hair;  clean,  pliable  skin;  broad  loins 
but  not  thickly  fleshed  as  in  the  beef  type;  frame  wedge-shaped, 
tapering  from  rump  to  shoulder ;  flank  high ;  abdomen  well  barrelled 
and  roomy. 

Udder :  Broad,  full,  extending  high  up  behind  and  far  forward ; 
not  loose,  pendulent,  and  fleshy ;  teats  large,  evenly  placed,  and  wide 
apart ;  large,  prominent  milk- veins. 

Extremities :  Fore  limbs  short  and  wide  apart ;  long  and  power- 
ful hind  quarters  with  thin  thighs,  widely  separated ;  tail  long,  slim, 
and  loosely  jointed. 

Temperament :  Docile ;  heavy  feeder. 


364  VETERINARY  STATE  BOARD 

Describe  a  properly  built  stall  for  a  horse.     Give  its  dimensions. 

A  properly-built  stall  for  a  horse  should  be  ten  feet  long  from 
the  manger  and  six  feet  wide.  The  partitions  must  be  strong  and 
high  enough,  especially  in  front,  to  prevent  quarrelling.  The  pillars 
are  rounded  and  provided  with  rings,  about  three  feet  from  the 
floor,  to  which  a  chain  can  be  attached. 

The  floor  is  made  of  concrete  or  other  impervious  material  and 
covered  with  wood.  The  slope,  posteriorly,  should  be  as  little  as 
possible  to  secure  drainage.  One  inch  lower  behind  than  in  front  is 
sufficient. 

Mangers  are  best  made  of  metal  and  so  constructed  as  to  permit 
of  thorough  cleansing.  The  hay-rack  should  be  low  to  avoid  the 
danger  of  dust,  chaff,  etc.,  falling  into  the  nostrils  and  eyes. 

Windows  should  be  high  overhead  to  prevent  drafts  and  the  glare 
of  light  in  the  eyes. 

At  what  age  does  the  cow,  mare,  bitch,  ewe  and  cat  bear  young? 

The  age  at  which  the  various  animals  arrive  at  puberty  varies  in 
different  species  and  in  individuals  of  species.  Records  show  that 
cows  have  given  birth  to  young  as  early  as  14  months,  mares  22 
months,  bitch  8  months,  ewe  13  months,  and  cat  10  months. 

It  is  undesirable  to  have  a  female  bring  forth  young  before  she 
has  matured  because  of  the  dangers  to  her  health  and  development. 
Therefore  breeders,  as  a  rule,  do  not  mate  females  until  they  have 
reached  ages  as  follows :  Cow,  1  to  I14,  years ;  mare,  4  to  5  years ; 
bitch,  1  year ;  ewe,  1  year ;  cat,  1  year. 

What  are  some  of  the  principal  causes  of  sterility  in  domestic  animals? 
How  may  these  conditions  be  overcome? 
(See  subject  of  obstetrics,  p.  293.) 

Name  the  several  external  and  internal  parasites  of  sheep. 

External:  Melophagus  ovinus  (sheep-tick),  hematopinus  stenop- 
sis  (sheep-louse),  oestrus  ovis  (sheep  gad-fly),  sarcoptes  scabei  (face- 
scab  parasite),  symbiotes  communis  (foot-scab  parasite),  psoroptes 
communis  (common  scab  parasite). 

Internal :  CEstrus  ovis  (grub  in  head),  coenurus  cerebralis  (gid), 
strongylus  filaria  and  rufeseens  (lung  worms),  strongylus  convo- 
lutus  (stomach  worm),  a^sophagostoma  columbiana  (nodular  disease 
in  intestines),  distoraa  hepaticum  (fluke),  taenia  expansa,  alba  and 
fimbriata  ( tapeworms ) . 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  365 

Give  the  process  of  dentition  in  the  equine  from  birth  to  the  age  of 
five  (5)  years. 

At  birth  or  within  two  weeks  after:  The  colt  shows  two  tem- 
porary nippers,  above  and  below,  and  the  first  three  temporary 
grinders. 

Four  to  six  weeks :  The  temporary  intermediates  appear. 

Six  to  nine  months :  The  temporary  corners  appear. 

Ten  to  twelve  months:  The  fourth  molar  erupts. 

Two  years :  The  fifth  molar  erupts. 

Two  and  one-half  to  three  years :  The  permanent  nippers  replace 
the  temporary  ones  and  the  first  two  premolars  are  replaced. 

Three  and  one-half  to  four  years :  The  intermediates  and  third 
premolars  are  replaced  by  permanent  teeth. 

Four  and  one-half  to  five  years :  The  permanent  corners,  canines, 
and  last  molars  erupt. 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  seven-year-old  mouth? 

The  tables  of  the  nippers  and  intermediates  are  levelled  (cups 
gone)  ;  the  ring  of  central  enamel  is  wider  anteroposteriorly  and 
shorter  from  side  to  side;  the  nippers  are  oval,  the  intermediates 
becoming  so.  A  notch  is  formed  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the 
superior  corners. 

State  the  advantages  and  disadvantges  of  a  pair  of  mules  over  a  pair 
of  horses. 

Advantages.  Disadvantages. 

1.  Less   susceptible    to    digestive   dis-       Practically  none. 

orders,  laminitis,  azoturia,  glan-  Many   people   are  prejudiced   against 

ders,     influenza,     foot     lameness,  the  mule  for  no  valid  reason. 

heat  prostration,  etc.  The  mule  is  not  adapted  to  heavy  draft 

2.  Require   less   elaborate   stables.  work  because  of  size. 

3.  Longer  period  of  serviceability. 

4.  Stand  hard  usage  better. 


INDEX 


Abdominal  cavity,  regions  of,  99 

organs,  pathology,  152 
Abducens  nerve,  75 

functions  of,  134 
Abomaslun,  anatomy,  81 

conditions  of  food  leaving,  118 
Abortion,  264,  276 
from  ergot,  198 
infectious  in  cows,  182 

course  and  etiology  of,  277 
methods  of  control,  277 
of  diagnosing,  182 
symptoms,  277 
non-contagious,  causes  of,  276 
symptoms  of,  276 
Abscess,  cold,  209,  240 

of  shoulder,  240 
treatment,  209,  240 
defined,  144,  209 
postpharyngeal,  causes,  220 

symptoms  and  treatment,  220 
Absorption,  103,  122 

of  gas  by  fluids,  114 
Acariasis,  poultry,  cause  of,  203 
treatment,  203 
prevention  and  treatment,  205 
Accommodation,  103 

process  of,  137 
A.  C.  E.  mixture,  305 
AcetaniUde,  action,  304 

effect  on  temperature,  304 
source  and  uses,  304 
Acetates,  35 
Acid,  3 

acetic,  35,  38 

action  on  secretions,  331  ' 

arsenious,  33 

boric,  31 

action,  properties  and  uses  of,  321 
carbolic,  som-ce,  37 
dibasic,  4 
gallic,  34 
hippuric,  127 
hydrochloric,  318 

preparation  of,  26 
soiirce  of,  in  gastric  juice,  118 
lactic,  38,  42 
mineral,  40 
monobasic,  4 

nitric,  preparation  of,  and  uses,  19 
phosphoric,  11,  318 
sulphuric,  23 

graphic  formula  of,  11,  24 
preparation  of,  23,  24 
tannic,  34 

actions  and  source,  321 
tartaric,  38 


Acid,  tribasic,  4 

uric,  127 
Acid-fast  organisms,  162 
Acne,  pathology,  156 
1  I    symptoms  and  treatment,  202 
Aconite,  dose  of  tincture,  299 

maximum  doses,  299 

physiological  actions,  298 

therapeutic  uses,  298 
Aconitine,  315 
Actinobacillosis,  180 

animals  affected  by,  180 

diagnosis  and  treatment,  180, 
Actinomycosis,  180 

fungus  of,  162 

prescription  for,  336 

symptoms  and  treatment,  180,  227 
AdrenaUn,  dose  for  dog  and  horse,  318 

preparation,  source  and  uses,  318 
Adrenals,  anatomy,  96,  98 

vascular  glands,  112 
Aerobic,  facultative  and  obligative,  161 

term  defined,  161 
Age,  determination  of,  225,  365 

of  breeding,  364 
Agglutinins,  163 
Air,  20,  346 

changes  in  inspired,  113,  346 

composition  of  breathed,  346 
of  normal,  115,  346 

constituents  of,  20 

injurious    substances    added    to,    in 
breathing,  20 

mixture  not  a  compound,  20 

residual,  114 

space  requirements,  346 

tidal,  103,  114 
Anatomy,  44 

Albimoinuria,  conditions  found  in,  186 
Alcohols,  absolute,  35 

ethyl,  35 

methyl,  35 

preparation  and  uses  of,  35 
Aldehyde,  35 
Alimentation,  104 
Alkalies,  3 

actions  of,  300 

on  secretions,  331 

caustic,  antidote  for,  39 

uses,  300 
Alkaloid,  38,  311 

antidote  for,  38 
Alkaloids,  six  common,  311 
AUantois,  274 
Allotropism,  5 
Aloes,  action  of,  322 

Barbadoes,  317 

367. 


368 


INDEX 


Aloea,  Cape,  317 

dose  for  cow,  dog,  and  horse,  322 

Socotrine,  317 
Alterative,  321 
Aluminum,  important  salts  of,  31 

sulphate,  31 
Alums,  31 
Alveolus,  45 
Amalgam,  4 
Amam'osis,  causes,  218 

defined,  218 

treatment,  218 
Amboceptors,  167,  168,  342 

bacterial,  168 

hsemolytic,  167,  168 
Ammonia,  19 

aqua,  301 

aromatic  spirits  of,  dose,  320 

sign  of  danger  in  drinking  water,  19 

source  and  uses  of,  19 
Ammonium  acetate,  35 

carbonate,  301 
dose,  320 

chloride,  19,  301 
dose,  320 

iodide,  303 
dose,  314 

nitrate,  20 
Amnion,  274 
Amorphism,  2 
Amphiarthrosis,  52 
Amputation  of  hind  limb,  98 

of  penis,  235 

of  tail,  indications  for,  239 

of  udder,  indications,  326 
Amylopsin,  116,  121 
Anabohsm,  40,  126 
Anaemia,  182,  141 

causes  of,  182 

cerebral,  200 

post-mortem  appearance  of,  155 

infectious,  treatment,  182 
Anaerobic,  term  defined,  161 

facultative  and  obligative,  161 
Arucsthesia,  chloroform,  258,  315 
dangers  of,  258 

of  a  foot  for  operation,  258 
Anaesthetic,  defined,  307 

general,  local,  and  uses,  307 
Anesthetics,  258 

in  major  operations,  258 

in  horse,  ox  and  dog,  258 

in  minor  operations,  258 

in  horse,  ox  and  dog,  258 
Analysis,  3 
Anaphylaxis,  143 
Anasarca,  144 
Anatomy,  histological,  99 
obstetrical,  259 

soft  organs  concerned  in,  259 
topographical,  98 
Anchylosis,  defined,  214 
Anchylostoma,  197 

animals  attacked  by,  197 


Anchylostoma,  symptoms  and  treatment, 

197 
Aneurism,  149 
causes,  187 
defined,  217 
false,  217 
of  cceUac  and  mesenteric  arteries,  149 

cause  of,  149 
symptoms  and  treatment,  187 
true,  217 
varieties  of,  217 
Angioma,  146 
Animal  heat,  128 

conditions  influencing,  128 
how  maintained,  128 
how  regulated,  128 
in  cold-blooded  animals,  128 
in  warm-blooded  animals,  128 
Ante-mortem  examination  of  food-animals 

355 
Anthelmintics,  325 
Anthrax,  in  cattle,  175 
bacillus  of,  172 
course,  175 
cutaneous  form,  175 
differentiated  from  malignant  oedema, 

166 
disinfecting  ships,  348 
immunization  in,  341 
method   of    procedure    in    outbreak, 

349 
post-mortem  lesions,  158 
symptoms,  175 
Antibodies,  167,  168 
Antidotes,  chemical,  39 

differentiated  from  antagonists,  338 
for  poisoning  by  aconite,  339 
by  alkaloids,  38 
by  arsenic,  338 
by  atropine,  340 
by  chloral  hydrate,  340 
by  chloroform,  340 
by  corrosive  sublimate,  338 
by  lead,  339 
by  mercury,  339 
by  morphine,  340 
by  strychnine,  340 
mechanical  and  physiological,  39 
Antimony.  34 
Antiphlogistics,  210,  331 
Antipyrine,  310,  3l7 
Antiseptic,  defined,  161,  329 
economic,  316 
for  wounds,  309 
wound  treatment,  206 
Antiseptics,  24 
Antitoxin,  163,  341 
tetanus,  dose,  343 

source,  unit,  and  use,  343 
treatment,  341 
Anus,  imperforated,  treatment,  296 
Aorta,  anterior  branches,  common,  64 

posterior,  branches  of,  63 
Aphrodisiac,  320 


INDEX 


369 


Aphthae  epizooticse,  176 

symptoma  and  treatment,  176 
Apnoea,  114 
Apomorphine,  for  the  dog,  308 

administration  and  dose,  308 
use,  308,  316 

hydrochloride,  dose,  327 
Aponem-oses,  57 
Apoplexy,  155 

parturient,  287 
Aqueous  humor,  93,  94 
Arachnoid,  anatomy,  71 

physiology,  133 
Areca  nut,  a  vermifuge,  dose,  316 

use  and  constituents  of,  324 
Arecoline  hydrobromide,  actions,  303 

dose,  303,  312 
ArgjTol,  27 
Arsenic,  33 

actions  and  administration,  303 

antidote  for,  39,  338 

compounds  of,  used  in  medicine,  38 

Fowler's  solution  of,  33 

Marsh's  test  for,  33 

poisoning  by,  symptoms,  338 

preparations  used  in  medicine,  303, 
327 

trioxide,  33 

uses,  303 
Arteries,  anterior  mesenteric,  63 

anterior  tibial,  65 

axillary  and  brachial,  64 

broncho-oesophageal,  63 

collateral  of  cannon,  64 

digital,  64 

external  carotid  and  iliac,  65 

external  pudic,  92 

femoral,  66 

function,  110 

gastric,  66 

glossofacial,  65 

hepatic,  66 

histologically  described,  99 

humeral,  64 

ihac,  64 

inflammation  of,  217 

intercostal,  63 

internal  iliacs,  66 
maxillary,  65 
pudic,  92 

Itunbar,  63 

middle  sacral,  63 

perpendicular,  64 

phrenic,  63 

plantar  ungual,  64 

popUteal,  65 

posterior  mesenteric,  63 
radial,  64 

preplantar  ungual,  64 

renal,  63 

small  testicular,  64 

spermatic,  63,  92 

splenic,  66 

superficial  temporal,  65 


Arteries,  umbilical,  67 

uterine,  66 

vertebral.  65 
Arteritis,  causes,  defined,  217 
Arthritis,  defined,  148,  214 

deforming,  214,  248 
lesions  of,  148 

serous,   suppurative,  and  tubercular, 
214 

varieties  of,  214 
Arthrology,  51 
Articulations,  51 

atlo-axoid,  52 

classes,  51 

costochondral  and  costosternal,  53 

coxofemoral  and  femorotibial,  56 

humeroradial,  53 

interphalangeal,  55 

of  the  tarsus,  56 

of  the  vertebrae,  52 

radiocarpal,  54 

scapulohumeral,  53 

structures  entering  into,  52 
Atrophy,  141,  143 

causes  of,  143 
Ascaris  megalocephala,  195 

prescription  for,  195 
symptoms,  195 
Ascites,  causes,  198 

defined,  198 

in    the  dog,    causes,  symptoma  and 
treatment,  231 
Asepsis,  defined,  161 
Aseptic  wound  treatment,  206 
Asphyxia,  115 

in  new-bom,  294 

treatment,  294 

stages  of,  115 
Aspidium,  dose,  324,  325 

oleoresin,  325 

precautions  in  administering,  324 

value  of,  324 
Asthma,  bronchial,  189 

animal  most  susceptible  to,  189 

causes,  symptoms  and  treatment,  189 
Atavism,  361 
Atelectasis,  151 
Atom,  3 

Atomic  weight,  5 
Atlas,  vertebra,  48 

articulation  of,  52 
Atropine,  action,  309 

poisoning  by,  symptoms  and  antidote, 
340 

source,  309 

sulphate,  dose  of,  312 
Auditory  nerve,  75 

function  of,  135,  137 
Augmentation,  defined,  133 
Auscultation,  171 
Autogenous  vaccine,  344 
Auto-intoxication,  142 
Automatism,  defined,  133 
Avogadro's  law,  12 


370 


INDEX 


Axis,  vertebrse,  48 

articulations  of,  52 
Azotuna,  183 

differentiated  from  spinal  meningitis, 
169 

etiology,  183 

pathology  of,  154 

prevention  of,  183 

symptoms,  183 

treatment,  183,  329 

BaciUus,  160 

Bang's,  161,  277 

Johne's,  179 

Koch's,  161 

necrophorus,  163 

Nicolaier's,  161 

of  anthrax,  tetanus  and  tuberculosis, 
162 

paratuberculosis,  163 
Bacteria,    pathogenic,    methods    of    dis- 
semination, 348 
Bacteriacese,  160 
Bacterin  therapy,  344 
Bacteriology,  160 
Bacteriologic  examination,  163 

collecting  tissues  for,  163 
Bacterium,  160 

lactic  acid,  42 

method  of  producing  disease,  164 

Migula's  classification  of,  160 

resistant  to  disinfectants,  348 
Balanced  rations,  127,  360 
Balsam  copaiba,  dose,  318 

Peru,  actions,  325 

dose,  source,  and  use,  325 
Bang,  bacillus  of,  161,  277 

method   of   eradicating   tuberculosis, 
350 
Barium,  29,  30 

chloride,  30 

dose,  and  indications  for,  299 
Bar-shoe,  contra-indicated,  256 

in  corns,  254 

in  laminitis,  255 

in  thrush,  254 

uses  of,  256 
Base,  3 

Bayer's  operation  for  quittor,  252 
Beef,  cold  slaughtered,  355 

detection  of,  355 

physiological  conditions  rendering  un- 
fit, 354 
Beggiatoa,  160 
Beggiatocea;,  160 
Belladonna,  actions  and  uses,  308 
Bell  metal,  12 
Benzoated  lard,  309 

preparation  of  and  uses,  309 
Bessemer  process,  32 
Bile,  120 

functions  of,  120 

result  of  suspended  secretion  pf,  109 

salts  of,  103 


Bile,  secretion  in  equine  and  bovine  com- 
pared, 120 
Bishoping,  method  of,  226 
Bismuth,  31 
citrate,  31 

salts  of,  action  externally,  314 
subcarbonate,  31 
subgaUate,  31 
Bubnitrate,  31 

actions  and  dose,  314 
subsalicylate,  31 
Bitters,  vegetable,  322 
Bladder,  urinary,  anatomy,  89 

paralysis  of,  in  horse  and  dog,  233 
causes,  symptoms  and  treatment, 
233 
prolapse  of,  in  mare,  treatment,  233 
rupture  of,     causes,    symptoms    and 
treatment,  233 
Blastoderm,  function  of,  273 

membranes  of,  273 
Bleaching  powder,  8 
Blistering  agents,  313 

for  different  animals,  313 
Bloating,  accompanying  choke,  222 

in  cattle,  192 
Blood,  amount  of,  in  horse,  107 

arterial  and  venous  compared,  108 
cause  of  alkalinity,  108 
circulation  of,  in  brain,  112 
coagulation  of,  108 
color  of,  in  renal  veins,  108 
composition  of,  101,  106,  107 
defined,  106 

flow  of,  in  ai'teries  and  veins.  111 
forces  that  cause  circulation  of,  110 
function  of,  in  secretion,  104 
gases  found  in,  107 
inflammatory  appearances  of,  210 
oxygen,  how  carried  in,  108 
pathology  of,  146 
pressure.  111 

factors    that    decrease    and    in- 
crease, 111 
governed,  111 
highest  and  lowest,  111 
proteids  of,  107 
velocity  of,  111 

greatest  and  lowest,  111 
vessels,  100 

diseases  of,  217 
pathology  of,  148 
Blood-clot,  147 

ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  com- 
pared, 147 
Blow-pipe,  oxyhydrogcn,  15 
Blue  vitriol,  7 
Bones,  44 
atlas,  48 
axis,  48 

blood  supply  of,  66 
carpal,  48 
cuneiform,  48 
development  of,  44 


INDEX 


371 


Bones,  femur,  fracture  of,  246 

frontal  of  the  ox,  45 

ilium  and  ischium,  50 

inferior  maxillary,  46 

inflammation  of,  212 

lunar,  48 

number  of,  in  the  horse,  44 

of  the  cranium,  44 

of  the  ear,  137 

of  the  foot,  48 

of  the  fore  limb,  horse  and  ox,  47 

of  the  head,  44 

of  the  hind  limb,  50 

of  the  pelvis,  50 

OS  innominatum,  50 

pathology  of,  147 

pedal,  48 

pisiform,  48 

properties  of,  44,  105 

pubis,  50 

ribs,  51 

sacrum,  50 

scaphoid,  48 

scapula,  47 

superior  maxillary,  45 

trapezoid,  48 

ulna,  47 

unciform,  48 
Bob-veal,  353 

method  of  detection,  353 

relation  to  health,  353 
Body,  excreting  organs  of,  105 

inorganic  constituents  of,  106 

secreting  organs  of,  105 

\ital  organs  of,  105 
Borax,  31 
Boric  acid,  31 
Boron,  31 

Bots,  in  throat  of  solipeds,  188 
Boyle's  law,  1 
Brain,  anaemia  of,  pathology,  155 

anatomy,  71,  72 

circulation  of  blood  in,  112 

hj-persemia  of,  200 

membranes  of,  71,  133 
function  of,  133 
Brandy,  35 
Brass,  12 

Breathing,  Cheyne-Stokes,  166 
Broken  knee,  treatment  of,  241 
Bromine,  preparation  of,  27 

uses  in  medicine,  27 
Bronchitis,  inhalation,  188 
causes  of,  188 
symptoms,  189 

verminous,  treatment  in  calves,  189 
Bronchopneumonia,  188 

appearance  of  limgs  in,  151 
Bunsen  burner,  22 

Csecum,  anatomy,  83 
capacity  of,  83 
horse  and  ox  compared,  83 
puncturing,  tissues  involved  in,  232 


Caecum,  puncturing,  unsatisfactory  results 

in,  232 
Caesium,  29 

Caffeine,  actions,  dose  and  use  of,  327 
Calabar  bean,  alkaloid  of,  312 
Calcification,  144 
Calcium,  29 
carbide,  22 
hydroxide,  11 
hypochlorite,  8 
sulphate,  30 
Calculus,  defined,  212 

salivary,  treatment,  227 
urinary,  symptoms  and  treatment,  223 
varieties  of,  212 
Calomel,  28,  299 

preparation  and  properties  of,  28 
uses,  299 
Calorie,  large  and  small,  129 
Camphor,  actions,  dose,  source  and  uses, 

327 
Canal,  auditory,  95 
Haversian,  105 
infra-orbital,  46 
inguinal,  62 
lachrymal,  45 
maxillodental,  46 
palatine,  45 
Cancer,  varieties  of,  145 
Canker,  254 

differentiated  from  thrush,  254 
prognosis,  254 

symptoms  and  treatment,  254 
Cannabis  indica,  actions  and  use,  324 
dose  for  dog  and  horse,  324 
Cantharides,  actions  and  uses,  302 
active  principles  of,  314 
source,  314 
Capped  hock,  causes,  definition  and  treat- 
ment, 249 
Carbohydrates,  34,  41,  360 

differentiated  from  hydrocarbons,  34, 
41 
CarboUc  acid,  37 

antidote  for,  40 
source,  37 
Carbon,  20 

allotropic  forma  of,  21 
amorphous,  21 
dioxide,  11,  21 

effect  on  health,  20 
preparation  of,  21 
test  for,  22 

weight  compared  with  air,  22 
element  of  proteids,  106 
monoxide,  11 
reducing  agent,  21 
Cardiac  cycle,  110 
hypertrophy,  148 

causes  and  lesions  of,  148 
Caries,  defined,  148,  213 
of  the  teeth,  224 
causes  of,  148 
treatment,  224 


372 


INDEX 


Carpus,  structures  of,  54 
Cartilage,  articular,  function  of,  105 

development  of  bone  from,  44 

ensiform,  49 

lateral,  55 

function  of,  55,  138 

of  prolongation,  47 

xiphoid,  49 
Caruncle,  136 
Cascara  sagrada,  319 

dose,  source  and  uses,  319 
Cascarilla,  actions,  dose  and  use,  322 
Casting,  accidents  in,  257 

methods  of,  in  horse  and  ox,  257 
Castor  oil,  actions  and  dose,  322 
Castration,  diseases  resulting  from,  234 

hemorrhage  following,  208,  234 

in  the  male,  234 

ill  effects  following,  234 

tissues  cut  in,  235 
Casts,  urinary,  153 

blood,  153 

epitheUal,  153 

fatty,  153 

granular,  153 

hyaline,  153 

in  acute  parenchymatous  nephritis,  153 

in  chronic  interstitial  nephritis,  153 

in  chronic  parenchymatous  nephritis, 
153 

varieties,  153 

waxy,  153 
Catabolism,  40,  126 
Cataplasm,  329 
Cataract,  conditions  giving  rise  to,  219 

defined,  diagnosis,  and  forms  of,  219 
Cathartics,  classes  of,  298 

vegetable,  322 
Catheterization,  operation  of,  233 

in  cow,  gelding,  mare  and  steer,  233 
Caudal  myotomy,  object,  239 
Caustic  alkali,  3,  39 

liquid,  29 

lunar,  27 
Cautery,  actual,  245 

value  of,  245 
Cavity,  abdominal,  regions  of,  99 

glenoid,  51 
Cell  division,  102 

direct  and  indirect,  102 

physiology  and  properties  of,  102 
Cerebellum,  effect  of  its  removal,  133 

function  of,  133 
Cerebral  anaemia  and  hyiieraimia,  200 
Cerebrospinal  meningitis,  see  Meningitis 
Cerebrum,  anatomy,  72 

function,  133 
Cervix  uteri,  laceration  of,  289 

treatment,  289 
Cesarean  section,  in  mare,  281 

complications  of,  281 
in  multiparous  animals,  282 
Chabert     method    of    opening    guttural 
pouch,  220 


Chemical  action,  5 

affinity,  3 

calculations,  12,  13 

change,  2 

equations,  8,  9,  10 

prefixes,  8 

suffixes,  7 
Chemistry,  1,  2 

distinguished  from  physics,  1 

inorganic,  2 

organic,  34 

physiological,  40 
Chestnut,  anatomy,  95 
Cheyne-Stokes  breathing,  166 
Choke,  in  the  cow,  treatment,  222 

CESophagotomy  in,  221 

treatment  of,  221 
Chordae  tendina),  103 
Chorea,  in  the  dog,  causes,  symptoms  and 

treatment,  200 
Chorion,  274 
Choroid,  anatomy,  93 
Chlamydobacteriaceae,  160 
Chloral,  36,  313 

hydrate,  36 

actions,  dose  and  preparation  of, 

313 
compared  with  chloroform,  36 
uses  in  medicine,  36,  313 
Chlorine,  compounds  of,  26 

preparation  and  uses  of,  26 
Chloroform,  36 

actions  and  uses  of,  324 

action  of,  compared  with  ether,  315 

compared  \\'ith  cliloral,  36 

dose  for  dog  and  horse,  324 

preparation  of,  36 

test  for  bile  in  urine,  42 
Chyle,  103 

compared  witli  chyme,  119 
with  lymph,  i20 
Chyme,  119 

compared  with  chyle,  119 
Circulation,  fetal,  67 

of  blood  in  the  brain,  112 

in  the  kidney,  112 

pulmonary,  67,  110 

systemic,  67,  110 
Circulatory  organs,  anatomy,  62 
Cladothrix,  160 

Clipping,  arguments  for  and  against,  130 
Clitoris,  anatomy,  93,  261 
Coal-tar  products  used  in  medicine,  317 
Cocaine,  actions  and  dose,  318 

prcscrii)tion  for,  333 
Coccacea;,  100 
Coccidia,  197 

animals  infested  by,  197 

diagnosis,  prevention  and  treatment, 
197 

in  the  skin.  203 

oviforme,  203 
Coeliac  axis,  66 
Coonurus  cerebralis,  200 


INDEX 


373 


Colic,  crapulous,  sjTnptoms  and  treatment, 
194 
engorgement,  194 
flatulent,  prescription  for,  337 
in  pregnant  animals,  causes  and  treat- 
ment, 292 
nervous,    symptoms   and   treatment, 

194 
spasmodic,  194 

differentiated  from  enteritis,  170 
prescription  for,  334 
thrombo-embolic,  196 
Collar-galls,  treatment  for,  229 
CoUargol,  27 
CoUyriiun,  defined,  304 
Colon,  anatomy,  82 
double,  82 

function  of,  in  digestion,  120 
floating,  83 
Colostrima,  composition  of,  269 
Combustion,  3,  17 
Complement,  160,  167,  168,  342 
Complement-fixation  test  for  glanders,  167 

for  abortion,  182 
Compoimds,  3 

distinguished  from  mixtures,  9 
inorganic  and  organic,  7 
Concrements,  212 
Condyle,  51 
Congestion,  active,  149 
of  limgs,  190 

causes,  149,  190 
lesions,  150 

symptoms  and  treatment,  190 
passive,  149 

difference  between  active  and,  149 
Conjunctiva,  inflammation  of,  217 

physiology,  136 
Conjimctivitis,  acute  catarrhal,  217 

causes,  symptoms  and  treatment,  217 
Connective  tissue,  anatomy,  101 

varieties  of,  101 
Constipation,  in  dog,  197 
in  hog,  treatment,  330 
prescription  for,  337 
symptoms,  197 
Contagious  disease,  165,  347 

contributing  causes  of,  348 

disinfecting  in,  347 

important  factors  in  prevention, 

350 
method  of  handling,  348 
Contagious  pleuropneumonia,  175 

appearance  of  lungs  in,  151 
course  of,  175 

differentiated  from  influenza,  170 
sanitary  police  measures,  349 
sjTnptoms,  termination  and  treat- 
ment of,  175 
Contracted  hoof,  treatment,  256 
tendons,  241 
operation  for,  241 
shoe  for,  241 
Coordination,  defined,  133 


Copper  acetate,  35 
uses,  315 
arsenite,  uses,  315 

preparation  of,  used  in  medicine,  315 
sulphate,  7,  24 

preparation  of,  24 
uses  of,  315 
Cornea,  anatomy,  93 
Corns,  dry,  253 

pathology  of,  253 
side-bones,  relation  to,  254 
suppurating,  253 
treatment,  253,  254 
Corona,  fracture  of,  251 

symptoms  and  treatment,  251 
Coronary  cushion,  anatomy,  96 

function  of,  138 
Corpora  libra,  214 

nigra,  function  of,  137 
quadrigemina,  anatomy,  72 
Corpus  luteum,  265 

false  and  true,  in  cow  and  sow, 
265 
Corpuscles,  Malpighian,  97,  112 

red  blood-,  function,  size  and  shape  of, 

107 
white  blood-,  function,  107 
Corrosive  sublimate,  7,  28 

antidote  for,  39 
Corti,  membrane  of,  137 
Cotton-seed  meal,  199 

effects  of  overfeeding,  199 
Cotyledons,  animals  in  which  found,  271 

fetal  and  maternal  compared,  266 
Counterirritants,  313,  339 

indications  for,  313 
Cow,    characteristics    of    a   good    milch, 

363 
Cowpox,  causes,  173 
extinction  of,  173 
sequelae  of,  173 

symptoms  and  treatment,  173,  174 
Coxitis,  245 
Creatine,  127 
Creatinine,  127 
Crenothrix,  160 
Crith,  5 

Cross-breeding,  361 
Croton  oil,  action,  328 

antidote  for,  and  derivation  of, 

328 
dose,  toxic,  328 
properties  and  uses  of,  328 
Crude  fibre,  360 

Cryptorchidism,  cause  of  sterflity,  293 
Crystalline  lens,  anatomy,  93 
Ciilture,  defined,  161 
pm-e,  161 
media,  161 
Cuneiform  bone,  anatomy,  48 
Curb,  causes  of  unsoimdness,  362 
defined,  249 
treatment  for,  249 
Curd,  42 


374 


INDEX 


Cushion,  coronarj',  96 

elastic,  of  heel,  95 

plantar,  95,  96 
Cyanosis,  age  liable  to  occur,  187 

causes  of,  187 

in  new-bom,  cause  and  sjTnptoms,  296 
Cystic  calculi,  symptoms  and   treatment 
of,  232 

ovary,  pathology  of,  154 
Cysticercus  cellulosse,  disease  caused  by,  353 

disposition  of  carcass,  353 

life-cycle  of,  353 
Cystitis,  urinary,  141,  185 

causes,  diagnosis  and  treatment,  185 
Cysts,  defined,  146 

degeneration,  146 

foreign  body,  146 

parasitic,  146 

retention,  146 

Dairy  cattle,  breeds  of,  361 

hygienic  precautions  in,  355 
Dandruff,  124,  156 
Dartos,  anatomy,  92 
Deafness  in  the  dog,  causes  of,  220 
Death  by  asphyxia,  115 

by  lightning,  lesions  of,  142 
Decay,  34 

Decidua  vera,  function  of,  in  cat,  139 
Decoction,  defined,  304 
Decussation,  defined,  104 
Degeneration,  fatty,  143 

differentiated  from  fatty  infiltra- 
tion, 143 
Deglutition,  organs  of,  77,  80 
Dehorning,  methods  of,  in  cattle,  228 
Deliquescence,  3 
Demodex  folliculorum,  203,  204 
Dental  formula,  dog,  78,  79 
horse,  78,  79,  115 
ox,  78,  79,  115 
Dentition,  process  of,  from  birth  to  five 

years,  365 
Deodorant,  24,  329 
Dermatitis,  gangrenous,  203 

course,  symptoms  and  treatment, 
203 
Dcscemet's  membrane,  94 
Desmotomy,  patellar,  247 

object  of,  247 
Development,  physiology,  139 
Diabetes,  forms  of,  184 

insi7)idus,  184 

mellitus,  184 

treatment,  184 
Diad,  4 

Diagnostic  inoculation,  171 
Diagnosis,  general  and  differential,  165 
Dialysis,  2 
Diamond,  21,  23 
Diaphoretic,  320 
Diaphragm,  anatomy,  61 

of  the  horse  and  ox  compared,  61 

rupture  of,  symptoms  of,  229 


Diarrhoea  in  new-bom,  causes  and  treat- 
ment, 194 

prescription  for,  333 
Diarthrosis,  52 
Diastole,  109 
Diet  for  a  dairy  cow,  127 
for  a  horse,  127 
Diffusion,  6,  41 

of  gases,  6 
Digestion,  action  of  salt  in,  122 

conditions  that  retard,  122 

of  proteids,  118 

organs  of,  77 

steps  in  process  of,  115 
Digestive  organs,  anatomy,  77 
Digitaline,  action  of,  317 

source  of,  312 
Digitahs,  action  of,  on  heart,  109,  326 

compared  with  aconite,  324 

active  principles  of,  315 

fiuidextract,  dose,  318 
Diseases,  165 

acute  general  infectious,  172 

chronic  infectious,  179 

communicable  to  man,  354 

contagious,  165 

contributing  causes  of,  348 

following  parturition,  284 

incident  to  pregnancy  and  labor,  284 

infectious,  165,  347 

and  contagious  differentiated,  165 

inflammatory,  353 

milk  transmission  of,  356 

non-inflammatory,  353 

of  the  abdomen,  229 

of  the  blood  and  blood-forming  organs 
182 

of  blood-vessels,  217 

of  circulatory  organs,  186 

of  the  digestive  organs,  191 

of  the  foot,  250 

of  the  fore  limb,  239 

of  the  generative  organs,  234 

of  the  hind  limb,  245 

of  the  nervous  system,  199 

of  the  new-born,  294 

of  the  organs  of  locomotion,  201 

of  the  respiratory  organs,  188 

of  the  skin,  202 

precautions   in    treating   smaller 
animals  in,  338 

of  the  spinal  column  and  pelvis,  238 

of  the  thorax,  228 

of  urinary  organs,  184,  232 

rendering  meat  unfit  for  food,  351 

specific  infectious,  178 
Disinfectants,  24 

chemical,  350 

defined,  161,  329 

natural,  350 

use  of  formaldehyde  as,  25 
Disinfection,  defined,  141,  350 

of  ships,  348 

of  stables,  347 


INDEX 


375 


Distemper  in  the  dog,  symptoms,  176 
Distillation,  14 
Distoma  hepaticum,  198 
Distomiasis  in  sheep,  19S 

causes,  symptoms  and  treatment, 
19S 
Diuretic,  320 

for  cow,  dog  and  horse,  318 
liquid  and  powdered,  314 
Dog  distemper,  symptoms  of,  176 
Dose,  lethal  and  toxic,  298 
Dourine,  cause  and  definition  of,  181 
sanitary  poUce  measures  in,  349 
sjTnptoms,  181 
treatment,  182 
Dover's  powder,  328 

composition  and  uses,  328 
Dropsy  of  the  abdomen,  187 
of  the  limbs,  causes,  187 
Drugs  acting  chemically,  332 
mechanically,  332 
on  the  ahmentary  canal,  331 
on  the  glandular  structures,  299, 

331 
on  the  nervous  system,  331 
on  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  319 
on  the  reproductive  organs,  332 
on  the  respiratory  organs,  331 
Duct,  mammary,  91 

stenosis  of,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment, 238 
Ductless  glands,  anatomy,  96 
Ductus  arteriosus,  68 
choledochus,  84 
venous,  67 
Dummy,  see  Chronic  hydrocephalus 
Duodenum,  anatomy,  82 
Dura  mater,  anatomy,  71 
physiology,  133 
Dysentery',  chronic  bacterial,  see  Johne's 

disease 
Dyspnoea,  114 
Dystocia,  264,  279-284 
causes  of,  279 
fetal  and  maternal,  279 

Ear,  bones  of,  137 

diseases  of,  217 
E.  C.  mixture,  305 
Ectropion,  defined,  218 
Eczema,  chronic  squamous,  205 

causes,  sj-mptoms  and  treat 
ment,  205 

stages  of,  156 

treatment,  in  dog,  323 
EflBorescence,  3 
Elastic  cushion  of  heel,  95 
Elements,  6 
Electricity,  6 
Electrolvsis,  2 
Electrolyte,  2 
Electro-plating,  2 
Electuary,  defined,  304 
Elimination,  102,  103 


Elimination,  four  ways  of,  103 

organs  of,  102 
Elixir,  defined,  304 
EmboUsm,  149 
Embryology,  265 
Embryotomy,  265 
Emetics,  316 

animals  given  to,  326 
definition  of,  326 
Emmenagogue,  267 
Emmenagogues,  two  principal,  267 
Emphysema,  pulmonary,  191 
lesions,  150 

symptoms  and  treatment,  191 
in  facial  sinuses,  223 
in  frontal  sinuses,  223 
in  guttural  pouches,  220 

diagnosis  and  symptoms,  220 
in  nasal  sinuses,  treatment,  223 
Emulsion,  8,  304 

difference  from  solution,  8 
Encephalitis,  200 

Endometritis,  acute,  causes,  symptoms  and 
treatment,  288 
chronic,   symptoms    and    treatment, 
288 
Endotoxin,  163 

Enteritis,    chronica   paratuberculosa,    see 
Johne's  disease 
catarrhal,  acute  and  chronic,  152 
intestinal  lesions  in,  152 
Enterocentesis,  described,  232 
indications  for,  232 
tissues  involved  in,  232 
imsatisfactory  results  in,  232 
Enterokinase,  116,  119 
Enteroliths,  description  of,  152 
Entropion,  defined,  218 
Environment,  influence  on  offspring,  362 
Enzymes,  116,  118,  119 
Epiblast,  function  of,  273 
Epididymis,  92 

Epididymitis,  sterility  from,  293 
Epistaxis,  causes,  188,  223 
defined,  188,  223 
treatment,  223 
Epitheliomata,  cylindrical,  145 

squamous,  145 
Epithehum,  columnar,  101 
histology,  101 
kinds  of,  101 
modified,  101 
specialized,  101 
squamous,  101 
Epizootic  cellulitis,  175 

sjTnptoms  and  treatment,  175 
lymphangitis,  179 

symptoms,  prognosis  and  treat- 
ment, 179 
Epsom  salts,  30 

administration  of,  to  a  cow,  317  i 
distinguished  from  zinc  sulphate, 

31 
preparation  of,  30 


376 


INDEX 


Equations,  8,  9,  10 
Erepsin,  116,  119 
Ergot,  actions  of,  302 

anatomy,  95 

dose  for  dog  and  horse,  320 

indications  for  use  in  labor,  280 

poisoning  in  cattle,  198 

forms  of,  and  symptoms,  198 

source,  320 

uses  of,  302 
Ergotine,  source  of,  312 
Ergotism  in  cattle,  198 

forms  and  symptoms  of,  198 
Erythema,  204 

causes,    prevention     and    treatment, 
204 
Eserine,  actions,  312 

dose  for  dog,  horse  and  ox,  312 

som-ce  and  uses,  312 
Esmarch's  bandage,  208 
Ether,  compared  with  chloroform,  315 

dose,  320 

effects  and  uses  of,  320 
Eupncea,  114 
Eustachian  catheter,  220 

tube,  anatomy,  95 

epitheUum  of,  101 
function  of,  95,  137 
Eutocia,  264,  278 
Evaporation,  2 
Excretion,  four  ways  of,  103 

organs  of,  102,  103,  105 
Expectorants,  322 

nauseating  and  stimulating,  322 
Exosmosis,  defined,  104 
Exotoxin,  163 

Exudates,  inflammatory,  144 
Exudation,     difference     from     secretion, 

104 
Eye,  anatomy,  93,  94 

appendages  of,  136 

diseases  of,  217 

enucleation  of,  219 

muscles,  93 

pathology,  155 

tunics,  93,  94 
Eyeball,  anatomy,  93 

muscles  and  structures  of,  93 

tunics  of,  93,  94 
Eyelashes,  136 
Eyelids,  136 

Facial  nerve,  75 

function  of,  135 
paralysis,  224,  258 

causes,  symptoms  and  treatment, 
224 
sinuses,  85 

trephining,  223 
Faeces,  average  amount  of,  in  horse  and 
cow  compared,  126 
composition  of,  103,  120 
of  herbivora  and  carnivora  compared, 
120 


Fallopian  tubes,  function  of,  264 
Farcy,  180 

differentiated  from  acute  lymphangi- 
tis, 169 
tissue  changes  in,  157 
Fats,  41,  360 

palmitin,  steapsin,  and  olein,  41 
Fatty  degeneration,  143 

differentiated  from  fatty  infiltra- 
tion, 143 
infiltration,  143 

differentiated  from  fatty  degen- 
eration, 143 
Favus,  sjTnptoms  and  treatment,  202 
Fecundation,  264 
Feeding,  precautions  as  regards  rest,  350 

watering,  345 
FeeUng,   impressions    obtained    through, 

138 
Fehling's  solution,  use  of,  43 
Fermentation,  34,  103 
Ferments  acting  on  milk,  118 

on  proteids  and  starch,  116 
defined,  103 
digestive,  116 
of  pancreatic  juice,  121 
Ferrous  chloride,  11,  32,  302 
uses  of,  317 
phosphate,  302 
uses  of,  317 
sulphate,  32,  302 
dose,  309 
preparation  of,  32 
uses  in  medicine,  32,  317 
vermifuge,  316 
Fever,  caused  by  infection,  141 

by  nervous  disorder,  141 
by  poison,  141 
methods  of  reduction  of,  310 
Fibrin,  composition  of,  108 

globulin,  107 
Fibrinogen,  101,  107,  108 
Filaria  immitis,  183 

conditions  produced  bj'^,  183 
where  found,  183 
Filtration,  14 
Firing,  245 

diagram  of,  214 
Fistula,  bone,  211 
defined,  144,  210 
ear,  211 

lachrymal,  treatment  of,  219 
milk,  211 

of  the  lateral  cartilage,  211,  251 
of  the  spermatic  cord,  211 
of  the  withers,  211,  229 

treatment,  229 
salivary,  227 

causes,    symptoms    and    treatment, 
227 
Fistulas,  ten  important,  211 
Fistulous  withers,  chronic,  229 

symptoms  and  treatment,  229 
Flagella,  160 


INDEX 


377 


Flatulency,  gastric,  193 

causes  and  symptoms,  193 
treatment,  193,  313 
sm'gical,  229 
Fleas,  203 

Fluidextraets,  preparation  of,  320 
Foal-lameness,  296 

causes,  symptoms  and  treatment,  296 
Foetus,  dead,  in  utero,  diagnosis,  284 
envelopes  surrounding,  274 
extraction  of,  mechanical  means,  280 
phenomena  of  nutrition  of,  271 
position  of,  in  ninth  month,  275 
secretions  of,  267 
skin  of,  development,  275 
Fomentation,  329 
Foods,  127 

ante-mortem  examination  of  animals 

for,  355 
carbohydrate,  127 
conditions  of  causing  paralysis,  155 
fat,  127 

inorganic  matter  in,  127 
non-nitrogenous,  127 

effete  materials  produced  by,  127 
proteid,  127 

ultimate  results  of,  127 
Foot,  diseases  affecting,  156,  250 
physiology',  138 

provisions  for  preventing  concussion 
in,  138 
Foot  and  mouth  disease,  176 
pathology,  158 

prognosis  and  symptoms  of,  176 
sanitary  police  measiires  in,  349 
Forage  poisoning,  cryptogamic,  169 

differentiated  from  lead  poison- 
ing, 169 
hygienic  measures  in,  349 
symptoms  of,  201 
Foraging  overcome  by  shoeing,  256 
Foramen,  51 

infra-orbital,  45 
magnum,  98 
mental,  46 
ovale,  68,  98 
Formaldehyde,  use  of,  in  disinfecting,  25 
Formalin,  used  in  white  scours,  178 
Fowler's  solution,  308 

composition  and  uses,  308 
dose  for  dog  and  horse,  308 
Fracture,  comminuted,  213 
compound,  213 
conditions  rendering  bones  liable  to, 

213 
defined,  213 
modes  of  union  in,  213 
of  the  femur,  246 

diagnosis  and  prognosis,  246 
of  the  ihum,  239,  245 

prognosis  and  treatment,  239 
of  the  ischial  tuberosity,  238 

prognosis,  symptoms  and   treat- 
ment, 238 


Fracture  of  the  metacarpus,  243 

symptoms  and  treatment,  243 
of  the  navicular  bone,  250 

prognosis,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment, 250 
of  the  OS  corona,  251 

symptoms  and  treatment,  251 
of  the  OS  suffraginis,  243 

symptoms  and  treatment,  243 
of  the  ulna,  241 

prognosis,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment, 241 
pelvic,  238,  239 

plaster-of-Paris  dressing  for,  213 
reparative  process  of,  147 
ribs,  symptoms  and  treatment,  229 
simple,  213 
varieties  of,  213 
Frog,  use  of,  138 
Frontal  bone,  anatomy,  45 
Fur,  compared  with  hair  and  wool,  124 

Gall-stones,  195 

factors  producing,  195 
prophylaxis  and  therapeutics,  195 
Ganglion,  Arnold's,  75 
ciUary,  75 
Meckel's,  75 
ophthalmic,  75 
otic,  75 

sphenopalatine,  75 
sympathetic,  77,  136 
vertebral,  136 
Gangrene,  defined,  143,  211 
kinds  of,  211 
of  the  lungs,  190 

post-mortem  appearance  of,  150 
treatment,  211 
Gapes,  190 

causes,  symptoms  and  treatment,  190 
Gas,  calculations,  1 

laughing,  18 
Gastric  juice,  composition  of,  118 

source  of    hydrochloric  acid  in, 
118 
Generation,  four  stages  in,  272 

physiology,  139 
Generative  organs,  changes  in,  after  con- 
ception, 269 
female,  function  of,  265 
modifications  after  labor,  266 
system,  chief  functions  of,  264 
Genitals  of  the  cow,  92 

diseases  of,  234 
Gentian  root,  312 

action,  322 

dose  for  dog,  horse  and  ox,  312, 

322 
uses,  312,  322 
German  sUver,  12 
Gestation,  269 

abdominal,  ovanan,  and  tubal,  270 
Gid,  in  sheep,  200 

caused  and  symptoms,  200 


378 


INDEX 


Glanders,  ISO 

cause,  course  and  symptoms  of,  180 

chronic,  157 

tissue  changes  in,  157,  160 

complement-fixation  test  for,  167 

diagnostic  tests  for,  166-168 

differentiated  from  strangles,  169 
from  nasal  gleet,  169 

hygienic  and  sanitary  precautions  in, 
347 

nasal  ulcer  in,  157 
Glands,  adrenal,  96,  98 

Briinner's,  119 

CowTDer's,  264 

ductless,  96 

lachrymal,  94 

Lieberkiihn's,  119 

mammary,  91,  140,  263 

pituitary,  97 

prostate,  92,  264 
disease  of,  236 

salivary,  80 

sebaceous,  95,  124 

sudoriparous,  124 

sweat,  95,  123 

thymus,  97,  98 

thjToid,  97 

vascular,  112 
Glass,  12 

Glauber's  salt,  7,  29,  300 
Glaucoma,  defined,  218 
Gleet,  defined,  223 
Globus  major,  92 
Glossitis,  causes  of,  191 

definition  of,  191 
Glossopharyngeal  nerve,  75 

function  of,  135 
Glucose  in  tissues,  127 

in  urine,  121 

relation  of  pancreas  to,  121 
Glycerine,  preparation  of,  38 
Glycogen,  121 

destination  and  origin  of,  127 
Glycosuria,  relations  of  pancreas  to,  121 
Goitre,  cystic,  in  dog,  treatment,  228 

prognosis  and  treatment,  228 

in  the  dog  and  horse,  228 
Gold,  27 

test  for,  27 
Goll's  column,  103 
Goulard's  extract,  310 

preparation  and  uses  of,  310 
Graafian  follicle,  139 

development  and  maturation  of. 
139 
Grade,  361 
Gram  differential  stain,  164 

negative  and  positive,  164 
Gramme,  defined,  306 
Granular  venereal    disease,  in    abortion, 

182 
Graphic  formula,  11,  24 
Graphite,  21 
Gypsum,  30 


Guttural  pouch,  anatomy,  86 
function  of,  86 
method  of  opening,  220 

Chabert,  220 

Viborg,  220 
pus  in,  220 

diagnosis  and  sjTnptome,  220 

Haematin,  103,  109 
Heematoidin,  109 
Haematuria,  153 
Hsemoglobin,  107 

combination  with  oxygen,  108 
semoglobinuria,  153,  183 

differentiated  from  spinal  meningitis, 

169 
etiology,  183 
patholog>'  of,  154 
prevention  and  symptoms  of,  183 
treatment,  183,  329 
Haemolysis,  108,  167,  168 
Haemophilia,  definition  of,  182 
Haemopis  sanguisuga,  188 
Hair,  95 

compared  with  fur  and  wool,  124 
precautions  to  limit  injurious  growth 
of,  125 
Halogens,  25 
Haustus,  defined,  304 
Haversian  canals,  105 
Healing  of  wounds,  207 

by  first  intention,  207 

by  granulation  and  cicatrization, 

207 
by  second  intention,  207 
by  third  intention,  207 
under  an  eschar,  207 
Hearing,  mechanism  of,  137 
Heart,  action  of  digitalis  on,  109 
anatomy,  62,  63 
disease,  lesions  of,  148 
hypertrophy,  148 

causes  and  lesions  of,  148 
muscle,  130 

motor  excitant  of,  317 
physiology  of,  109 
sounds,  cause  of,  109 
Heat,  5 

animal,  conditions  influencing,  128 
how  maintained  and  regulated, 
128 
stroke,  201 

differentiated  from  heat  exhaus- 
tion, 166 
symptoms,  201 
treatment,  201,  314 
tissues  producing  greatest  amount  of, 

129 
unit  of,  129 

exhaustion,  differentiated  from  heat 
stroke,  166 
Heaves,  symptoms  and  treatment,  191 

lesions,  150 
Hematite,  32 


INDEX 


379 


Hemorrhage,  165 

drugs  checking,  310 

following  castration,  208,  234 

internal,  165 

methods  of  arresting,  208 

postpartum,  treatment,  290 
Hemorrhagic  septicaemia,  174 

post-mortem  lesions  of,  159 
sjTnptoms  of,  174 
Hepatitis,  acute  parenchj-matous,  in  dog, 
symptoms  and  treatment,  198 

chronic  interstitial,  152 

appeai-anee  of  liver  in,  152 
Hepatization,  graj-,  150 

pulmonary,  changes  in  air-cells  in,  150 

red,  150 
Hereditary,  361 

diseases,  363 
Heredity,  influence  on  offspring,  362 
Hermaphrodism,  296 

external  sexual  organs  in,  296 
Hernia,  classification  of,  212 

defined,  212 

diaphragmatic,  sjonptoms,  229 

inguinal,  symptoms  and  treatment,  230 

irreducible,  212 

of  bladder  into  vagina,  292 
reduction  of,  292 

reducible,  212 

umbilical,  treatment  of,  230 
Heroin,  action  and  uses  of,  315 
Histological  anatomy,  99 
Hobbles,  use  in  casting,  257 
Hog,  methods  of  medicating,  330 
Hog-cholera,  sjinptoms  of,  172 

causes  of,  163 

immunization  in,  341 

simultaneous  method  of,  343 

lesions  of,  160 

prophylactic  measures  in,  173 

serum,  how  obtained,  use,  342 
Hoof,  anatomy,  95 

secretion  of,  138 
Hoose,  189 
Hoove,  192 
Horns,  anatomy,  95 
Horse-pox,  symptoms  and  treatment,  173 

causes  of,  and  extinction,  173 
Hoven,  192 
Hiunor,  aqueous,  93 

of  the  eye,  94 

vitreous,  93 
Hunger,  cause  of  sensation,  119 

mange,  see  Chronic  squamous  eczema 
Husk,  189 
Hydrargj-ri  chloridimi  mite,  299 

actions,  dose  and  uses,  299 

chloridum  corrosivum,  299 

actions,  doses  and  uses,  299 

iodidum  rubrum,  299 

actions,  doses  and  uses,  299 
Hydrocarbons,  34,  41 

differentiated  from  carbohydrates,  34, 
41 


Hydrocele,  sterility  from,  293 

symptoms  and  treatment,  236 
Hydrocephalus,  265,  279 

chronic,  causes,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment, 199 
pathology  of,  155 
dystocia  from,  279 

how  overcome,  279 
Hydrogen,  13 

an  element  of  proteids,  106 
compared  with  oxygen,  17 
dioxide,  15,  16 
sulphide,  preparation  of,  23 
Hydrops  uteri,  causes  and  treatment,  284 
amnii,  285 

causes,  symptoms  and  treatment, 
285 
Hydrothorax,  causes  and  symptoms,  191 
lesions^  151 
operations  for,  228 
treatment,  191,  228 
Hygiene,  345 

meat  and  milk,  351 
Hypersemia,  141 
cerebral,  200 

differentiated  from  cerebral  an- 
aemia, 200 
Hyperisotonic,  40 
Hyperpncea,  114 
H}T:)ertrophy,  causes  of,  143 
Hypnotic,  309,  320 
Hypoblast,  function  of,  273 
Hypoderma  lineata,  203 
Hypoglossal  nerve,  anatomy,  76 

function  of,  135 
Hypo-isotonic,  40 

Icterus,  causes  and  symptoms,  193 

pathology  of,  153 

relative  gravity  of,  in  dog  and  horse, 
193 
Ileum,  anatomy,  82 
Illuminating  gas,  22 
Immobihty,  199 

causes,  symptoms  and  treatment,  199 
Immune  body,  168 
Immunity,  141,  164,  341 

acquired,  164,  341 

active,  164 

natural,  164,  341 

passive,  164 

varieties  of,  164 
Immunization,  341 

in  infectious  diseases,  341 
Imperforate  anus,  treatment  of,  296 
Impregnation,  artificial,  273 
Impregnator,  use  of,  273 
In-breeding,  361 
Incompatibility,  6 

chemical,  6,  305 

pharmaceutical,  6,  305 

physical,  6 

physiolo^cal,  6,  305 

therapeutic,  6 


380 


INDEX 


Index,  opsonic,  how  determined,  163 
Indigestion,  acute  gastric,  193 
causes,  193 
prescription  for,  336 
symptoms,  193 
treatment,  193,  313 
surgical,  229 
Inertia,  uterine,  283 

symptoms  and  treatment,  283 
Infection,  defined,  141 

rise  in  temperature  due  to,  141 
Infectious  abortion,  causes  of,  182 

anaemia,  causes  and  characteristics  of, 

182 
disease,  157,  165,  347 

agents  in  development  of,  142 
disinfection  in,  347 
Inferior  maxilla,  anatomy,  46 
Infiltration,  fatty,  143 

differentiated  from  fatty  degen- 
eration, 143 
Inflammation,  cardinal  symptoms  of,  144 
causes  of,  209 
classification  of,  210 
defined,  144,  209 
process  of,  144 
productive,  144 
symptoms  and  treatment,  209 
termination  of,  210 
tissue  changes  in,  144 
use  of  cold  and  heat  in,  210 
Influenza,  causes  of,  177 
cellulitic  form,  175 

differentiated  from  contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia, 170 
symptoms,  177 
treatment,  300 

modern  forms  of,  177 
Infusion,  defined,  304 

saline,  indications  for,  332 

methods  of  administration,  332 
Inguinal  canal,  anatomy,  02 
Inhibition,  defined,  133 
Inoculation,  diagnostic,  171 
Insolation,  201 

differentiated  from  heat  exhaustion, 

166 
symptoms,  201 
treatment,  201,  314 
Insufficiency  of  cardiac  valves,  186 

causes  and  symptoms,  186 
treatment,  187 
Intestines,  anatomy,  82 

length    of,    in    horse,  cow  and  dog, 

82 
small,  82 
Intussusception,  defined,  194 
genera  most  liable  to,  194 
prognosis  and  treatment,  194 
symptoms,  194,  231 
Invagination,  genera  most  liable  to,  194 
symptoms,  194, 231 
treatment,  194 
Invertase,  116,  119 


Iodine,  25 

compoimds,  actions  and  uses,  303 

dose  for  dog  and  horse,  317 

general  actions  of,  317 

preparation  and  uses  of,  26 

test  for,  25 

tincture,  uses  of,  304 
Iodoform,  derivation  of,  36 

in  chronic  metritis,  289 

uses  of,  36,  304 
Ions,  2 
Ipecac,  actions  and  uses  of,  323 

an  expectorant,  322 

dose  for  dog  and  horse,  323 
for  cats  and  swine,  327 

in  Dover's  powder,  328 
Iridocyclochoroiditis,  156 
Iris,  anatomy,  93 

function  of,  136 

innervation  of,  136 
Iron,  31 

carbonate,  32 

cast,  32 

chloride,  32,  302 
uses  of,  317 

compounds  of,  32 

occiurence  in  nature,  31 

ores  of,  32 

phosphate  of,  302 
uses  of,  317 

preparation  of,  309 

reduced,  32 

dose  of,  309 

salts  of,  uses,  302 

sesquioxide  of,  302 
uses  of,  39,  338 

sulphate,  32,  302,  309 
preparation  of,  32 
uses  in  medicine,  32,  317 

wrought,  32 
Ischsemia,  defined,  147 
Ischial  notch,  vessels  and  nerves  passing 

through,  260 
Ischium,  50 

fracture  of  tuberosity  of,  238 

notch  of,  260 
Isomerism,  5 
Isotonic,  40 

Jaborine,  328 
Jaundice,  109 

causes  and  symptoms  of,  193 
pathology  of,  153 

relative  gravity  of,  in  horse  and  dog, 
193 
Jejunum,  anatomy,  82 
Johne's  disease,  179 

cause,  179,  103 
genus  subject  to,  179 
prevention  and  Hymjitomg,  179 
Joints,  51,  214 

classification  of,  51 
false,  214 
fetlock,  55 


INDEX 


381 


Joints,  hip-,  horse  and  ox  compared,  56 
open,  treatment,  214 
pathology  of,  147 
shoulder,  53 

muscles  that  flex,  58 
structures  entering  into,  52 

Karyokiuesis,  102 
Keraphyllocele,  250 
Keraphyllous  tissue,  anatomy,  96 
Keratogenous  membrane,  anatomy,  96 

fvmction  of,  138 
Kidneys,  anatomy,  89 

blood  supplj^  of,  89 

compared  with  liver,  104 

capsule  of,  125 

circulation  of  blood  in,  112 

cortical  layer  of,  125 

elimination  by,  102 

function  of,  125 

of  horse  and  ox  compared,  89 

secretion  of  urine  by,  125 

structures  of,  101,  125 
King  system  of  ventilation,  346 

Labor,  278 

care  of  dam  after,  283 
signs  and  stages  of,  279 
Lachrymal  apparatus,  94,  136 
bone  and  canal,  94 
fistula,  treatment  of,  219 
gland  in  the  ox,  94 
of  horse  and  ox  compared,  94 
sac,  94 

secretion,  function  of,  137 
Lactase,  116,  119 
Lameness,  hip,  245 

symptoms  and  treatment,  245 
varieties,  245 
shoulder,  239 

symptoms  and  treatment,  239 
stifle,  246 

symptoms  and  treatment,  246 
trochanteric,  245 
Laminae,  sensitive,  96 

function  of,  96,  139 
Laminitis,  acute,  causes,  symptoms  and 
treatment,  255 
pathology  of,  156 
chronic,  255 

pathology  of,  156 
puerperal,  in  mare,  causes,  symptoms 
and  treatment,  293 
Lampas,  defined,  210 
Lanolin,  soiirce,  124 
Laparotomy  in  the  cow,  230 
indications  for,  230 
Laryngitis,  acute,  171 

differentiated  from  acute  pharyn- 
gitis, 171 
LarjTix,  anatomy,  85 
cartilages  of,  86 
epithelium  of,  104 
motor  nerve  to,  135 

effect  of  division  of,  135 


Larynx,  nerve  supply  to,  77,  86,  135 

sensory  nerve  of,  135 
Lateral  cartilages,  anatomy,  95 

function  of,  55,  138 
Laughing  gas,  18 
Law,  Avogadro's,  12 

of  constant  or  definite  proportions,  11 

of  multiple  proportions,  11 
Laxatives,  298,  316 
Lead,  28 

acetate  of,  35 

antidote  for,  39 

chamber  process,  24 

poisoning,  169,  195,  339 
in  cattle,  195,  339 

symptoms    and    treatment, 
195,  339 

sugar  of,  action,  28 
dose,  uses,  319 
Leech,  horse,  188 
Lens,  crystalline,  anatomy,  93 
Leptomeningitis,  155,  200 
Lesion,  primary  and  secondary,  141 
Leucocytes,  function,  107 
Leucocythaemia,  defined,  146 
Leucocytosis,  defined,  147 

diseases  in  which  occurs,  147 

relation  of,  to  phagocytosis,  147 
Leucorrhcea,  288 

symptoms  and  treatment  of,  288 
Leukaemia,  definition  of,  147,  182 
Lice,  203 

Ligaments,  broad,  of  liver,  83,  84 
of  uterus,  85,  91 

calcaneo-cuboid,  56 

iUosacral,  260 

of  elbow-joint,  53 

of  femorotibial  articulation,  56 

of  fetlock-joint,  55 

of  hip-joint,  56 

of  knee-joint,  54 

of  Uver,  83 

of  pelvis,  260 

of  radiocarpal  joint,  54 

of  shoulder-joint,  53 

of  vertebral  articulations,  52 

prepubic,  rupture  of,  231 

round,  of  liver,  84 
of  uterus,  91 

sacrosciatic,  260 

suspensory,  55 
sprain  of,  242 

utero-ovarian,  91 
Ligamentum  nuchae,  53 

elastic  fibrous  tissue  in,  101 
Light,  5 
Lightning,  death  by,  142 

lesions,  142 
Lignieres,  coccobacillus  of,  177 
Lime  water,  30 
Linguatula  taenoides,  192 

animals  infested  by,  192 
diagnosis  and  treatment,  192 
Linseed  oil,  actions  and  doses,  322 


382 


INDEX 


Liqmd,  metric  unit  o{,  306 
Liquor  amnii,  272,  274 
functions,  272 

plumbi  subacetatis,  310 

preparation  and  uses  of,  310 

potassii  arsenitis,  33 

sanguinis,  101 
Lithium,  29 

salts  of,  uses,  301 
Liver,  anatomy,  83 

blood  supply,  66,  84,  120 

compared  with  kidney,  104 

cirrhotic,  appearance  of,  152 

fluke,  198 

functions,  120 

ligaments  of,  83,  85 

nerve  supply,  84 

rot  in  sheep,  see  Distomiasis 
Lobelia,  properties  and  uses  of,  317 
Lochia,  289 

common  in  all  animals,  289 

treatment,  289 
Loco  poisoning,  prevention,  199 

when  and  where  enzootic,  199 
Lugol's  solution,  303 
Lumbago,  171 

distinguished  from   acute    nephritis, 
171 
Lunar  bone,  anatomy,  48 

caustic,  preparation  of,  27 
uses  in  medicine,  27 
Lvmgs,  anatomy,  87 

blood  supply,  66,  88 

congestion  of,  190 

elimination  by,  103 

epitheliiun  of,  104 

function,  114 

number  of  lobes  in  dog,  horse,  ox, 
pig,  and  sheep,  87 
Luxation,  causes  of,  215 

defined,  215 

patellar,  246 

symptoms  and  treatment  of,  246 
Lymph,  appearance,  122 

capillaries,  122 

described,  122 

forces  assisting  flow  of,  123 

function  of,  122 

involved    in    diseases    of    connective 
tissues,  123 

source,  spaces,  and  vessels,  122 
Lymphagogues,  123 
Lymphangioma,  149 
Lymphangitis,  acute,  1G9 

differentiated  from  farcy,  169 

causes,  217 

defined,  217 

epizootic,  158,  179 

prognosis  and  symptoms,  179 

infectious,  158,  179 

pathology  of,  158 

symptoms  and  treatment,  217,  329 
LjTnphatic  glands,  70 
axillary,  71 


Lymphatic  glands,  bronchial,  70 

iliac,  70 

inguinal,  71 

mesenteric,  71 

of  the  thorax,  70 

popliteal,  71 

posterior  cervical,  70 
mediastinal,  70 

precrural,  71 

prescapular,  70 
Lymphatics,  69 
Lymphoid  tissue,  70 
Lysins,  342 

Magnesium,  29 

carbonate,  30       _ 

compounds  used  in  medicine,  30 

sulphate,  30 

administration  of,  to  cow,  317 
distinguished  from  zinc  sulphate, 

31 
preparation  of,  30 
Magnetite,  32 

Manunary  duct,  stenosis  of,  symptoms  and 
treatment,  238 
gland,  anatomy  of,  91,  263 
function  of,  266 
of  the  bitch,  92,  263 
of  the  cow,  91 
of  the  mare,  140 
Mammitis,  see  Mastitis 
Mange,  demodectic,  203,  204 

symptoms  and  treatment,  204 
disposition  of  carcass,  354 
follicular,  204 
hunger,  205 
prescription  for,  333 
psoroptic,  203,  204 
sarcoptic,  203,  204 
symbiotic,  203 
treatment  in  dog,  324 
Malignant  oedema,  174 

cause  and  course  of,  174 
differentiated  from  anthrax,  166 
symptoms,  174 
pustule,  175 
Mallein,  162 

cutaneous  test,  167 
intradermal  test,  166 
ophthalmic  test,  167 
test  for  glanders,  166,  167 

comjiared  with  agglutination,  167 
course  to  be  innsued  in,  167 
Malpighian  corpuscles,  anatomy,  97,  112 
Maltase,  116,  119 
Marsh  gas,  22 
Marsh's  test  for  arsenic,  33 
Massage,  effect  of,  319 
indication  for,  319 
Mastitis,  238 

a  sequel  of  cowpox,  173 
acute,  in  the  cow,  201 

causes,  symptom  and  treatment, 
291,  326 


INDEX 


383 


Mastitis,  purulent,  238 

treatment,  238,  326 
Masturbation,  cause  of  sterility,  293  (see 

Onanism) 
Materia  modica,  defined,  297 
Measly  pork,  353 

method  of  detecting,  353 
Meat  and  milk,  hjgiene,  351 

inspection,  municipal  and  State, 
354 
Mediastinum,  anatomy,  88 
Medicine,  classified,  331 

theory  and  practice  of,  165 
Medicines,    kinds    according    to    general 
action,  316 
modes  of  administration  of,  297 
comparison  of,  297 
Medulla  oblongata,  anatomj',  72 

functions  of,  133 
Meibomian  glands,  physiology,  136 
Melanosarcomata,  145 
animals  found  in,  145 
gross  appearance  of,  145 
Melanosis,  cause  of,  145 
Membrana  tympani,  anatomy,  95 
fimction,  95 
granulosa,  139 
Membrane,  Descemet's,  94 
keratogenous,  96 
mucous,  100 
nictitans,  94,  136 
of  Corti,  137 
of  Reissner,  13"^ 
serous,  100 
tjTnpanic,  95 
Meningitis,  155 

cerebral,  symptoms  of,  200 
cerebrospinal,  symptoms  of,  201 

hygienic  measures  in,  349 
spinal  differentiated  from  azoturia,  169 
Menstruation,  causes  of,  265 

in  bitch,  cat,  cow,  and  sow,  267 
not  independent  of  ovaries,  265 
Mercurialism,  antidote  and  symptoms,  339 
Mercuric  chloride,  7,  28 
antidotes  for,  39 
properties  of ,  28 
Mercurous  chloride,  11,  28 

properties  of,  28 
Mercury,  28 

compounds  used  in  medicine,  28 
poisoning,    antidote   and   symptoms, 

338 
preparations  of,  299 
Mesoblast,  function  of,  273 
MetaboMsm,  40,  126 
diseases  of,  183 
of  nutrition,  126 
Metacarpus,  fracture  of,  243 

sjTnptoms  and  treatment,  243 
Metals,  5 

alkaline  earth,  29 

bell.  12 

distinguished  from  non-metal,  9 


Metastasis,  defined,  142 
Methaemoglobin,  109 
Methylene  blue,  uses,  325 
Metritis,  154 

sterility  from,  293 
Metrotomy,  indications  and  operation  of, 

286 
Micrococcus,  160 
Microorganisms,  acid-fast,  162 

pus-producing,  161 
Microspira,  160 
MUiary  tubercle,  159 
Milk,  41 

bacterial  analysis  of,  359 

bitter,  358 

blue,  358 

butter  fat  in,  42 

certified,  355,  359 

classification  of,  357 

cow's,  composition  of,  41,140,  268,355 

dangers  of  infection  in,  356 

diseases  transmitted  through,  356 

hygiene,  351 

inspected,  357 

mare's,  compared  with  cow's,  268 

composition  of,  140,  269 
pasteurized,  357,  359 
preservatives  used  in,  358 
pus  in,  358 
red,  358 
ropy,  358 

sour,  microorganisms  causing,  359 
souring  of,  42 
standards,  42 
sterilized,  359 

streptococci  in,  significance  of,  359 
suppression  of,  358 
test  for  boric  acid,  357 

for  formaldehyde,  358 
for  pasteurization,  357 
for  salicylic  acid,  357 
for  sodium  bicarbonate,  357 
t5T3hoid  germs  in,  356 
uterine,  139 
Mitosis,  102 

Mitral  stenosis,  changes  following,  149 
Mixtm"e,  distinguished  from  compound,  9 
Molecular  repulsion,  4 
Molecule,  3 

weight,  5 
Monad,  4 
Morphine,  actions  and  uses,  307 

on  dog  and  horse  compared,  321 
defined,  307 

dose  for  dog  and  horse,  307 
poisoning    by,  sjnnptoms  and  treat- 
ment, 340 
Morula,  stage  of,  268,  271 
Motor  oculi  nerve,  74 

functions,  134 
Mucous  membrane,  100 

compared  with  serous,  100 
location,  100 
secreting  gastric,  118 


384 


INDEX 


Mules  compared  with  horses,  365 
Multiparous,  266 
Muscles,  anconeus,  58 

anterior  extensor  of  the  metacarpus, 

58 
caput  magnum,  58 

medium,  58 

parvum,  58 
cremaster,  92 
diaphragm,  61,  114 
expiratory,  114 
extensor  pedis,  58 

suffraginis,  58 
external  flexor  of  the  metacarpus,  58 
flexor  brachii,  58 
function  of,  130 
gastrocnemius,  59 
gemelli,  59 
gluteal,  59 
heart,  130 

humeralis  obliquus,  58 
ihopsoas,  59 
inspiratory,  114 
internal  flexor  of  the  metacarpus,  58 

obturator,  59 
involuntary,  130 
kinds  of,  130 
longissimus  dorsi,  60 
longus  colli,  61  ' 

masseter,  57 
mastoidohumeralis,  57 
obhque  extensor  of  the  metacarpus, 
58 

flexor  of  the  metacarpus,  58 
obturator  externus,  59 
of  hogs,  parasite  in,  155 
of  respiration,  62,  114 
of  the  eye,  57 
of  the  forearm,  58 
of  the  tail,  60 
pathology  of,  155 
panniculus  camosus,  60 
pectineus,  59 
perforans,  58 
perforatus,  58 
pophteus,  59 
psoas,  59 

pterygoid  externus  and  intemus,  57 
quadratus  femoris,  59 
sartorius,  59 
serratus  magnus,  61 
small  adductor  of  the  thigh,  59 
striated,  100 
striped,  100 

and  unstripcd  compared,  100 
subscapulohyoideus,  57 
surgery  of,  216 
temporal,  57 
tensor  fascia  lata,  59 
teres  externus  and  intemus,  58 
triceps,  58 
unstriped,  100 

vastus  externus  and  intemus,  59 
voluntary,  100,  130 


Muscular  contraction,  130 

chemical  changes  in,  130 
phases  of,  130 
excitability,  conditions  enhancing,  131 
conditions  impairing,  131 
Mustard,  319 

an  emetic,  316 

dose  for  dog,  316 
as  a  blistering  agent,  313 
Mydriatic,  309 
Myocarditis,  149 
Myology,  57 
Myoma,  146 
Myositis,  causes,  216 
defined,  216 
symptoms,  216 
Myotic,  309 
Myotomy,  caudal,  object  of,  239 

Nasal  gleet,  169,  188 
causes  of,  188 

difi'erentiated  from  glanders,  169 
symptoms  and  treatment,  188 
Navicular  sheath,  anatomy,  62 
bone  fracture  of,  250 
disease  of,  252 

symptoms    and    treatment, 
252 
Necrobacillosis,  cause  and  forms  of,  163 
Necrosis,  143 

bacillus  of,  163 
caseation,  occurrence,  143 
coagulation,  143 
liquefaction,  143 
Negative  phase,  164 
Negri  bodies,  158 
Nephritis,  acute,  171 

casts  found  in,  153 
causes  and  treatment  of,  185 
distinguished  from  lumbago,  171 
from    lumbar    rheumatism, 
171 
gross  pathology,  154 
chronic  interstitial,  185 
casts  found  in,  153 
gross  pathology,  154 
Nerves,  abducens,  75,  134 
afferent,  131 
auditory,  75,  135   137 
ciliary,  93 
cranial,  73-76 
described,  99 
digital,  76 
efferent,  131 
facial,  75,  134 

function  of,  in  secretion,  104 
gloHSopharyngoal,  75,  135 
hypoglossal,  76,  135 
median,  76 
motor,  effect  of  electric  stimulation  of, 

133 
motoroculi,  74,  134 
olfactory,  73,  134 
optic,  74,  93,  134 


INDEX 


385 


Nerves,  patheticum,  74,  134 
phrenic,  function  of,  133 
plantar,  76 

pneumogastric,  75,  135 
radial  and  sciatic,  76 
sensorj'  and  motor  compared,  132 
spinal,  73 

effect  of  division  of  both  roots  of, 
132 
of  inferior  roots  of,  132 
functions  of,  132 
number  of,  73 
spinal  accessory,  76,  135 
sm-gery  of,  216 
trifacial,  74,  134 
vagus,  75,  135 
Nervous  system,  71,  131 
cerebrospinal,  71 
development  of,  in  the  foetus,  275 
influence  on  secretion,  134 
pathologj'  of,  155 
Bympathetic,  77 

fmiction  of,  135 
Neurectomy,  anterior  tibial,  249 
high  plantar,  244 

indications  for,  245 
relation     of     artery,     vein, 
nerve  and  tendon,  245 
median,  indications  for,  244 
structures  severed  in,  99 
posterior  tibial,  250 
trifacial,  teohnic  of,  228 
unfavorable  results  in,  216 
Neurilemma,  100 
Neurology,  71 
Neuroma,  146 

Neurotomy,  unfavorable  results  in,  216 
Neutralization,  4 
New-bom,  asphyxiated,  294 

cyanosis,  causes  and  symptoms,  296 

treatment,  294 
diarrhoea  in,  294 

causes  and  treatment,  294 
diseases  of,  infectious,  294 
non-infectious,  294 
Nitrate  of  potash,  see  Potassium 
Nitric  acid,  preparation  and  uses  of,  19 
tonic,  318 
oxide,  11,  12 
Nitrogen,  18 

an  element  of  proteids,  106 
compared  with  oxygen,  18 
function  of,  18 
oxides  of,  18 
preparation  of,  18 
Non-metal,  9 

Nutrition,  metabolism  of,  126 
Nux  vomica,  dose  of  fluidextract,  310 
uses,  310 

Obstetrics,  259 

Obstetrist,  disadvantage  of,  280 

veterinary,  280 
Ocular  sheath,  physiology,  136 
25 


Oculomotor  nerve,  74 

function  of,  134 
(Edema,  141,  144 

causes,  144 

differs  from  secretion,  104 

of  the  glottis,  188 

symptoms  and  treatment,  188 

of  the  lungs,  cause,  149 
(Esophagotomy,  221 

in  choke,  221 
(Esophagus,  anatomy,  80 
CEstrus  larvae,  in  throat  of  solipeds,  188 
Oils,  castor,  action  and  dose,  322 

croton,  see  Croton  oil 

essential,  34 

fixed,  34 

linseed,  action  and  dose,  322 
Olein,  41 
Olfactory  nerve,  73 

function  of,  134 
Oligemia,  defined,  182 
Oligocythsemia,  definition  of,  182 
Omasum,  anatomy,  82 
Omphalophlebitis,  295 

causes,  symptoms  and  treatment,  295 
Onanism,  steriUty  from,  293 

correction  of,  293 
Oophorectomy,  in  the  bitch,  237 

in  the  mare,  accidents,  237 
Oophoritis,  154 
Open  joint,  treatment  of,  214 
Opium,  dose  for  cow,  dog  and  horse,  301 

general  actions,  source  and  uses,  301 
Ophthalmia,  periodic,  155 
pathology  of,  155 
prognosis,  218 
symptoms  and  treatment,  218 

contagious,  animals  affected  by,  219 
diagnosis  and  treatment,  219 
Opsonic  index,  163 

how  determined,  163 
Optic  nerve,  anatomy,  74,  93 

function  of,  134 

thalami,  anatomy,  72 
Orchitis,  141,  154 

causes,  236 

sterility  from,  293 

symptoms  and  treatment,  236 
Organs,  abdominal,  pathology,  152 

eliminating,  102,  105 

genito-urinary,  pathology,  153 

of  secretion,  105 

respiratory,  pathology,  150 

sense,  93 

vital.  105 
Orgasm,  266 
Os  innominatum,  50 

coxa,  50 
Osmosis,  41 
Osteology,  44 
Osteomalacia,  169 

differentiated  from  osteoporosis,  169 

in  pregnancy,  284,  292 
treatment,  292 


386 


INDEX 


Osteomyelitis,  defined,  212 
Osteoporosis,  169 

course  of,  184 

differentiated  from  osteomalacia,  169 

pathology  of,  147 

symptoms  and  termination  of,  183 

treatment  of,  184 
Ostitis,  defined,  212 
Otorrhoea  of  dog,  treatment,  220 
Ovaries,  anatomy,  90,  262 

changes  in,  after  fecundation,  265 

conditions  of,  causing  sterility,  294 

cystic,  293 

pathology  of,  154 

during  menstruation,  264 

extirpation  of,  in  bitch,  236 
in  mare,  237 

function  of,  265 

of  cow  and  mare  compared,  90 

of  mare,  cow,  sheep,  goat,  pig,  bitch 
and  cat  compared,  263 

pitted  in  old  age,  264 
Ovariotomy,  in  the  bitch,  236 

in  the  mare,  accidents,  237 
Oviducts,  264 

function  of,  264,  265 
Ovum,  impregnation  of,  268 

journey  of,  268 
Oxidation,  16,  17 

rapid  and  slow,  17 
Oxj'gen,  16 

an  element  of  proteids,  106 

compared  with  hydrogen,  17 

compared  with  nitrogen,  18 

how  carried  in  blood,  108 

preparation  of,  16,  l7 
Oxyhsemoglobin,  109 
Oxyuris  curvula,  195,  196 

prescription  for,  195 

mastigodes,  196 
Ozone,  17 

Pachymeningitis,  155,  200 
Palmitin,  41 
Palpation,  171 
Pancreas,  anatomy,  84 

blood  and  nerve  supply  of,  84 
functions  of,  121 

relation  of,  to  glucose  in  urine,  121 
relations  of,  84 
secretion,  121 
Paper-skin  disease,  189 
Patheticum  nerve,  74 

function  of,  134 
Paralysis,  facial,  224,  258 

food  conditions  causing,  155 
of    the    bladder  in    horse   and  dog, 
233 
causes,  symptoms  and  treatment, 
233 
of  the  lips,   causes,  symptoms   and 

treatment,f224 
of  the    masticatory  muscles,    symp- 
toms and  treatment,  226 


Paralysis  of  the  penis,  causes,  symptoms 
and  treatment,  235 
originating  in  brain,  cord  and  periph- 
ery, differentiated,  216 
radial,  symptoms  and  treatment,  241 
suprascapular,  cause,  symptoms  and 
treatment,  240 
Paraphimosis,  symptoms  and  treatment, 

235 
Parasites,  affecting  gullet  of  cattle,  192 
in  intestines  of  the  horse,  195 

of  the  dog,  symptoms,  197 
in  muscles  of  hogs,  155 
in  the  throat  of  solipeds,  188 

prevention,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment, 188 
of  sheep,  364 
of  the  skin,  203 
Paris  green,  33 

antidote  for,  39,  338 
Parturient,  apoplexy,  287 

Schmidt  treatment  of,  287 
eclampsia,  287 

and    parturient    paresis    differ- 
entiated, 287 
in  the  mare,  287 

causes  and  treatment  of,  287 
paresis,  287 
Parturition,  279 

diseases  following,  in  cow,  284 
fetal  conditions  interfering  with,  279 
sign  and  stages  of,  279 
Patella,  displacement  of,   symptoms  and 

treatment,  246 
Pathogenic,  defined,  161 
Pathology,  defined,  141 

special,  141 
Pearson's  solution,  308  ^ 

dose,  preparation  and  uses,  308 
Pedal  bone,  anatomy,  48 

connection  of  hoof  wall  with,  96 
Pedigree,  362 

depends  upon,  362 
value  of,  362 
Pelvis,  articulations  of,  260 
bones  of,  50 

centres  of  ossification  in,  259 
defined,  259 

diameters  of,  in  cow,  260 
diseases  of,  238 
fracture  of.  238,  239 
function  oi,  259 
ligaments  of,  260 
of  horse  and  ox  compared,  50 
of  mare,  cow,  sheep,  goat,  bitch  and 

cat  compared,  259 
of  sheep  and  cow  compared,  260 
Penetrating  street  nail,  treatment,  256 
Penis,  amputation  of,  235 

paralysis   of,  cause,   symptoms   and 
treatment,  235 
Pentad,  4 
Pepsin,  116,  118,  119 

preparation  and  properties  of,  315 


INDEX 


387 


Percentage  composition,  determination  of, 

11 
Periarthritis,  defined,  148,  2" 
Pericarditis,  acute,  149 

chronic,  lesions,  149 

in  bovines,  causes,  prevention,  symp- 
toms arid  treatment,  186 
Perimysium,  100 
Periodic  ophthalmia,  155 

pathologic  changes  in,  155 
prognosis  and  symptoms,  218 
treatment,  218,  312 
Periostitis,  aseptic,  213 

causes,  symptoms  and  treatment, 
213 

defined,  148,  212 
Peristalsis,  119 

remedies  promoting,  314 
Peritoneum,  anatomy,  84 

part  of  spermatic  cord,  92 
Peritonitis,  198 

causes,  198,  232 

pathologj'  of,  152 

pulse  in,  165 

sj-mptoms  and  treatment,  198 
Perspiration,  124 

effect  of  suppression,  124 
Petroleum,  uses,  37 
Peyer's  patches,  70 

in  catarrhal  enteritis,  152 
Phagocytes,  146 
Phagocytosis,  104,  146 

method  of  stimulating,  147 

relation  of  leucocytosis  to,  147 
Pharyngitis,    acute,    differentiated    from 

acute  laryngitis,  171 
Pharynx,  anatomy,  80 
Phase,  negative  and  positive,  164 
Phenacetin,  310,  317 
Phenol,  source,  37 

antidote,  40 
Phlebitis,  causes,  and  defined,  217 
Phlebotomy,  indications  for,  228  (see  Vene- 
section) 
Phlegmon,  209 
Phosphine,  11 
Phosphoric  acid,  11 
Phosphorus,  25 

allotropic  forms  of,  25 

antidotes  for,  39 

occurrence,  25 

physical  properties,  25 

source  and  uses  of,  25 
Phragmidothrix,  160 
Phrenitis,  155,  200 
Physical  change,  2 
Physics,  1 

distinguished  from  chemistry,  1 
Physiologic  action  of  a  drug,  298 

salt  solution,  40 
Physiology,  102 

a  study  of  the  properties  of  cells,  102 

definition,  102 

obstetrical,  264 


Physostigmine,  319 
Pia  mater,  anatomy,  71 
physiology,  133 
Pilocarpine,  action  of,  317 

source  of,  312,  328 
Pilocarpus,  actions,  328 

active  principles  of,  328 
composition,  328 
dose  and  uses,  328 
Pineal  bodies,  vascular  glands,  112 
Pisiform  bone,  anatomy,  48 
Pituitary  gland,  anatomy,  97 
vascular  gland,  112 
Placenta,  139 

cotyledonary,  139,  271 
development  of,  271 
diffuse,  139,  271 
function  of,  139,  271 
retained,  291 

prescription  for,  291 
zonary,  139,  271 
Planococcus,  160 
Planosarcina,  160 
Plasma,  101 
Plaster  of  Paris,  30 
Pleura,  anatomy,  88 
Pleurisy,  190 

of  the  dog,  191 
lesions,  151 
pulse  in,  165 

symptoms  and  treatment,  190 
Pleuritis,  acute  diffused,  190 
lesions,  151 

symptoms    and    treatment, 
190 
Plexus,  brachial,  anatomy,  76 
cardiac,  136 
lumbosacral,  76 
mesenteric,  136 
pelvic,  91 
solar,  136 
Plumbi  acetate,  28 

actions,  dose  and  uses,  319 
Plumbism,  see  Lead  poisoning 
Pliu-iparous,  266 

Pneumogastric  nerve,  anatomy,  75 
function  of,  135 
influence  on  heart,  109 
Pneumonia,  broncho-,  appearance  of  lungs 
in,  151 
gangrenous,  190 

post-mortem  appearance,  150 
symptoms  of,  190 
inhalation,  188 

causes  of,  188,  258 
prevention,  189 
sjrmptoms  and  treatment,  189 
medicinal  treatment  of,  300 
post-mortem  appearance,  150 
symptoms  of,  190 
Podophyllum,  actions  and  uses,  328 
dose,  317,  328 
general  action,  317 
source,  317 


388 


INDEX 


Poisoning,  ergot,  in  cattle,  198 
lead,  169,  195 

differentiated  from  forage  poison- 
ing, 169 
loco,  199 
ursemic,  185 
Poisons,  38 

irritant,  38 
neurotic,  38 
metallic,  39 
Poll-evil,  operation  for,  227 
Polycythemia,  defined,  146 
Polypi,  nasal,  223 

symptoms,  223 
treatment,  223 
pharj-ngeal,  treatment,  221 
Poljou-ia,  causes  and  treatment,  185 
Portal  circulation,  112 
vein,  69 

relation  to  absorption,  120 
Position,  cephalosacral,  281 
obstetrics,  278 
right  cephalo-ilial,  281 
Btemo-abdominal,  281 
varieties,  279 
Positive  phase,  164 
Post-zygopophyses,  52 
Potassium,  300 
acetate,  35 

dose,  318 
alum,  31 

bicarbonate  of,  29 
bromide,  300 
chlorate  of,  11,  29,  301 

dose  and  properties  of,  311 
uses,  301,  311 
citrate,  dose,  318 
hydroxide,  29,  301 
iodide,  preparation  of,  26 
dose  of,  314 
uses,  301,  304 
nitrate,  7,  11,  29,  300 
action,  319,  330 
dose,  318,  330 
source,  330 
uses,  319,  330 
permanganate,  11,  326 

action  and  uses,  326 
sodium  tartrate,  7 
Precipitation,  14 
Prefixes,  chemical,  8 
Pregnancy,  269 

care  and    food    of    animals    during, 

269 
changes  in  blood,  274 
diseases  incidental  to,  284 
duration  of,  in  bitch,  cow,  ewe,  mare 

and  sow,  268 
effects  of  indigestion,  270 
extra-uterine,  varieties  of,  270 
multiple,  position  of  foetus  in,  272 
position  of  neighboring  organs  dujing, 

273 
signs  of,  270 


Prehension,  organs  of,  77,  80 

in  horses,  cattle  and  sheep  compared, 
116 
Premature  birth,  276 
Prepotency,  361 
Prescription  for  actinomycosis,  336 

for  acute  indigestion,  336 

for  blister,  335 

for  bowed  tendons,  216 

for  cathartic,  sheep,  335 

for  chronic  constipation,  dog,  337 

for  chronic  cough,  332,  337 

for  chronic  eczema,  dog,  335 

for  cocaine,  333 

for  cough  powder,  334 

for  diarrhoea  in  calves,  333 

for  fever  in  horse,  333 

for  flatulent  cohc,  337 

for  intestinal  worms,  195 

for  liniment,  336 

for  mange,  333 

for  purgative,  332,  334 

for  ringworm,  337 

for  round  worms  in  dog,  333 

for  scratches,  336 

for  spasmodic  colic,  334 

for  tonic  for  horse,  cow  and  dog,  334, 
335 
Presentation,  278 

anterior,  281,  282 

most  difficult,  278 

most  favorable  and  frequent,  278 

normal,  278 

posterior,  281 

varieties,  278 
Prezygopophyses,  52 
Primiparous,  266 
Process,  basilar,  48 

condyloid,  46 

coronoid,  46 

retrossal,  48 

spinous,  49,  51 
Prognosis,  165 
Prolapse,  defined,  212 
Prophylaxis,  349 
Prostate  gland,  92 

diseases  of,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment, 236 
Protargol,  27 

uses,  330 
Proteids,  elements  composing,  106 

ferments  acting  on,  116 

important  food,  127 
Protein,  360 

Proximate  princijiles,  346 
Pseudomonas,  160 
Psoroptes  communis,  203 
Ptomaines,  39 
Ptyalin,  116 
Ptyalism,  causes,  226 

accidental,  226 

disease,  226 
Puberty,  364 

in  various  domestic  animals,  364 


INDEX 


389 


Puerperal  laminitis  in  mare,  cause,  symp- 
toms and  treatment,  293 
septicemia,    causes,    symptoms   and 
treatment,  291 
Pulmonary  congestion,  190 
causes,  149,  190 
lesions,  150 

symptoms  and  treatment,  190 
emphysema,  191 
lesions,  150 
treatment,  191 
oedema,  causes  of,  149 
Pulse,  compressible,  165 
dicrotic,  165 
fast,  165 
hard,  165 

normal,  in  horse,  ox,  dog,  sheep  and 
cat,  112 
Pupil,  anatomy,  93 

drugs  contracting  and  dilating,  319 
Purgatives,  298,  316 

cholagogue,  298,  316 
drastic,  298,  316 
hydragogue,  298 
saline,  316 
simple,  298 
Purpiu-a  haemorrhagica,  causes  of,  177 
prognosis  of,  178 
symptoms  of,  177 
treatment  of,  178,  320 
Pus,  microorganisms  producing,  161 
in  guttural  pouch,  86 

diagnosis  and  symptoms,  220 
in  nasal  sinuses,  treatment  of,  223 
Putrefaction,  34 
Pyaemia,  209 

differentiated  from  septicaemia,  170 
treatment  for,  170 
Pyelitis,  diagnosis  and  treatment,  184 
Pyoktanin,  uses,  325 

Quassia,  actions,  dose  and  use,  322 
Quinine  sulphate,  action,  306 

dose  for  cow,  dog  and  horse,  306,  307 

uses,  306 
Quittor,  251 

Bayer's  operation  for,  252 

symptoms  and  treatment,  251 

Rabies,  176 

course  and  symptoms  of,  176 

diagnosis  of,  171 

dumb,  176 

furious,  176 

immimdzation  in,  341 

lesions  of,  157 

period  of  incubation,  178 

precautions  taken  in  bitten  animals, 
209 

sanitary  police  measxires,  351 
Rachitis,  cause,  184 

in  pregnancy,  treatment,  292 

symptoms,  184 

treatment,  184,  320 


Radial  paralysis,  241 

symptoms  and  treatment,  241 
Radium,  29 
Rations,  127,  360 

balanced,  127,  360 

nature  and  value  of,  127 

for  a  dairy  cow,  127,  361 

for  a  horse,  127,  360,  361 

for  swine,  361 
Receptaculum  chyli,  70 
Reduction,  5 
Reflex,  action  defined,  104,  132 

experiment  illustrating,  132 

movements,  134 
Reil,  island  of,  72 
Reissner,  membrane  of,  137 
Rennin,  116,  118,  121 
Repeller,  indications  for  use,  280 
Repulsion,  molecular,  4 

of  a  diseased  upper  molar,  226 
Resection,   perforans  tendon,  indications 

for,  256 
Residual  air,  114 

Resorcin,  actions,  dose  and  uses,  330 
Respiration,  Cheyne-Stokes  type  of,  166 

functions  of,  113 

muscles  of,  62 

normal  number,  114 

relation  to  pulse-beats,  114 
Respiratory  organs,  anatomy,  85 

pathology,  150 
Restraint,  methods  of,  257 

in  recumbent  position,  257 
in  standing  position,  257 
Reticulum,  anatomy,  82 
Retina,  anatomy,  93 

Rhemnatism,  articular,  causes,  symptoms 
and  treatment,  201 

muscular,  causes,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment, 201 
Rhinitis,  chronic,  causes  of,  188 

differentiated  from  glanders,  169 

symptoms  and  treatment,  188 
Rhino-adenitis,  see  Strangles 
Ribs,  anatomy,  51 

asternal,  51 

fracture  of,  229 

sjTnptoms  and  treatment,  229 

sternal,  51 
Rigor  mortis,  131 

changes  in  muscle  in,  131 
Ringbone,  defined,  243 

forms  of,  243,  251 

symptoms  of,  243 

treatment,  243,  251 
Ringworm,  cause,  203,  164 

prescription  for,  337 

symptoms  and  treatment,  202 
Roaring,  changes  in  nervous  and  muscular 
tissue  in,  151 

operation  for,  222 

symptoms  of,  222 
Rochelle  salts,  7 
Rotation,  obstetrics,  278 


390  INDEX 

Rubidium,  29  Sebum,  functions  of,  124 

Rumen,  anatomy,  81  where  and  how  secreted,  124 

Rumenotomy,  in  cow,  230  Secretion,  defined,  104 

Rimiination,  physiology  of,  117  differs  from  exudation,  104 

Rupture  of  the  bladder,  causes,  symptoms  from  oedema,  104 

and  treatment,  233  from  transudation,  104 

of  the  diaphragm,  symptoms,  229                     function  of  blood  in,  104 

of  the  fiexor  metatarsi,  247  function  of  gland  cells  in,  104 

of  the  ligamentum  teres,  245  function  of  nerves  m,  104,  134 

of  prepubian  ligament,  231  influenced  by  nervous  system,  134 

of  tendons,  215  lachrymal,  function  of,  137 

organs  of,  105 

Sacrum,  anatomy,  50  Sedatives,  action  of,  298 

Saddle-galls,  treatment  for,  229  danger  of  excessive  use,  298 

Salicylic  acid,  preparations  of,  327  Seedy  toe,  253 

actions  and  uses,  327  defined,  253 

Sahne  infusion,  332  treatment,  253 

-  -     indications,  332  Selection  for  breedmg,  362 

■  methods  of  administration,  332  points  considered,  362 

Saliva,  action  in  stomach,  119  Sense  organs,  anatomy,  93 

amount  in  horse  and  ox,  117  physiology,  136 

properties  and  uses  of,  116  Senses,  physiology,  136 , 

Salivary  calculi,  treatment  of,  227  Septica;mia,  209 

fistula,  causes,  symptoms  and  treat-  differentiated  from  pysemia,  170 

ment,  227  puerperal,  291 

glands,  80  causes,  291 

nerve  supply  of,  77  symptoms  and  treatment,  291 

ducts  of,  80       '  treatment  for,  170 

Salol  37  Serous  membrane,  100 

actions  and  uses,  327  compared  with  mucous,  100 

Salt,  3  location,  100 

acid  4  12  Serum  albumin,  101,  107 

basic   i2  bactericidal,  163 

physiologic  solution  of,  40  bacteriolytic,  163 

use  of,  332  danger  m  transfer,  108 

effect  of,  on  growth  of  wool,  125  globuhn,  101,  107 

Saltpetre,  7  prophylactic,  350 

Salvarsan,    used    in    contagious  pleuro-             therapy,  341 

pneumonia,  176  of  hog  cholera,  342 

in  dourine,  182  Sexual  organs,  anatomy,  90 
Sanitary,   barn,    farm,     and     milk-house,      Sheep,  parasites  of,  364 

353  wool  breeds  of,  361 

science,  used  by  veterinarian,  345             Shoe-boil,  etiology,  240 

Santonin,  dose,  325  treatment  of,  240,  241 

Saphrophytic,_defined,  161  Shoeing,  in  bruised  heel,  257 

Sarcina,  160  in  canker,  254 

Sarcolemma,  100  in  contracted  tendons,  256 

Sarcoma,  tissue  resembling,  145  in  contracted  hoof,  256 

types  of,  145  in  corns,  253 

Sarcoptes  scabei,  203,  204  in  laminitis,  255 

Saturnism,  see  Lead  poisoning  in  navicular  disease,  252 

Scabies,  204                             •  in  quarter  crack,  256 

in  sheep,  204  in  thrush,  254 

Scaphoid  bone,  anatomy,  48  physiologic,  139 

Scapula,  anatomy,  47  to  overcome  forging,  256 
Scirrhous    cord,    causes,    symptoms    and      Shoulder  abscess,  cold,  240 

treatment,  234  .  .            cause  and  treatment,  240 

Sclerostoma  equinum,  196  joint,  53 

tetracanthum,  196  dislocation  of,  239 

Sclerostomata  in  bowels  of  horse,  195                      lameness,  239 

symptoms,  195  symptoms  and  treatment,  239 

Scratches,  prescription  for,  336  Side-bones,  pathology,  251 

Scrotum,  anatomy,  92  treatment,  251 

Sebaceous  glands,  124  Siderite,  32 


INDEX 


391 


SUver,  27 

compounds  used  in  medicine,  27 
German,  12 
nitrate,  11,  18 
test  for,  27 
Sinapis  alba  semina,  319 

nigra  semina,  319 
Sinuses,  51 

facial,  trephining  of,  223 

frontal,  of  horse  and  ox  compared, 

85 
galactophorus,  92 
maxillary,  45 

point  to  trephine,  99 
nasal,  pus  in,  treatment,  223 
of  the  head,  85 
Skin,  appendages  of,  95 
diseases  of,  202 
elimination  by,  102 
function  of,  123 
glands  found  in,  123 
parasites  of,  203 
pathology  of,  156 
Soap,  preparation  of,  41 
Sodium  acetate,  35 
arsenate,  33 

bicarbonate,  11,  29,  300 
action,  331 
dose  and  uses,  331 
borate,  31 
bromide,  300 
carbonate,  7,  29 

preparation  of,  29 
chloride,  29,  300 
an  emetic,  316 
dose  for  dog,  316 
citrate,  a  l3Tnphagogue,  123 
hydrate,  42 
hydroxide,  29,  301 
hjT^osulphite,  300,  313 
iodide,  303 

dose,  314 
nitrate,  18 
phosphate,  29 
salts,  29 

sulphate,  7,  29,  300 
Solder,  12 
Sole,  pumiced,  cause,  253 

prognosis  and  treatment,  253 
Solution,  8 

difference  from  emulsion,  8 
Fehling's,  use  of,  43 
Fowler's,  composition,  308 

dose  for  dog  and  horse,  308 
uses,  308 
Pearson's,  308 

dose,  preparation  and  use,  308 
Solvay  process,  29 
Soimdness,  certificate  for,  172 

mode  of  examining  for,  172 
Spasm    of     diaphragm,    and    treatment, 
307 
of  muscles  of  hind  leg,  and  treatment, 
202 


Spavin,  blood,  248 
bog,  248,  362 

forms  of,  and  treatment,  248 
lesions  of,  148 
unsoundness,  362 
Specific  gravity,  determination  of,  1 

of  urine,  43 
Spermatic  artery,  92 

cord,  structures  of,  92 
vein,  92 
Spermatozoa  not  always  in  semen,  266 
Spider  in  teat,  238 

symptoms  and  treatment,  238 
Spinal  accessory  nerve,  76 

function  of,  135 
Spinal  column,  diseases  of,  238 
cord,  anatomy,  72 
functions  of,  131 
inferior  columns  of,  132 

function  of,  compared  with 
superior  column,  132 
reflex  functions  of,  132 
superior  colunms  of,  132 
Spinal  meningitis,  169 

differentiated  from  azoturia,  169 
Spine,  acromian,  47 

supermaxillary,  45 
Spirillaceae,  160 
Spirillum,  160 

Spirits,  ammonia  aromaticus,  action  and 
dose,  326 
definition,  305 

difference  from  tinctures,  305 
glonoin,  action  and  dose,  326 
nitrous  ether,  dose,  318 
Spirochseta,  160 
Spirosoma,  160 
Spleen,  a  ductless  gland,  96 
anatomy,  97 
a  vascular  gland,  113 
blood  supply  of,  66,  97 
diseases  in  which  enlarged,  153 
engorgement  of,  97 
function  of,  113 
nerve  supply  of,  77,  97 
of  horse  and  ox  compared,  97 
Splint,  etiology  of,  242 

symptoms  and  treatment,  243 
Spore,  160 
Sporotrichosis,  179 
Stable,  objectionable  locations  for,  345 

proper  drainage  for,  345 
Staggers,  stomach,  see  Vertigo 
Stall,  properly  built  for  horse,  364 
Stannous  chloride,  11 
Staphylococcus  pyogenes  albus,  161 
aureus,  161 
citreous,  161 
Staphyloma,  defined,  218 
Starch,  ferments  acting  on,  116 
Starvation,  126 

effect  on  tissue,  128 
on  urine,  126 
Steapsin,  116,  121 


392 


INDEX 


Stearin,  41 

Stenosis,  mammary  duct,  symptoms  and 
treatment,  238 
mitral,  changes  following,  149 
Sterile,  defined,  161 
Sterility,  causes  and  treatment,  293 
In  female  and  in  male,  293 
defined,  293 
Sterilization   of  hands   and  instruments, 

method  of,  258 
Sternum,  anatomy,  49 

of  horse,  ox  and  dog  compared,  49 
Stimulants,  cardiac,  305 
cerebral,  305 
definition  of,  305 
diffusible,  305 
general,  305,  314 
hepatic,  305 
Stomach,  anatomy,  81 

blood  supply  of,  66,  81 

epithelium  of,  104 

function  of,  117 

nerve  supply  of,  77,  81 

number  of,  in    horse,  ox,  goat  and 

camel,  118 
ruptiu-ed,  symptoms  of,  192 
staggers,  see  Vertigo 
tube,  indications  for  use,  232 
method  of  passing,  232 
Stomatitis,  causes  and  treatment,  225 
Strangles,  complications  occurring  in,  178 
differentiated  from  glanders,  169 
symptoms  of,  178 
Streptococcus  pyogenes,  161 
Streptothrix,  160 
Stringhalt,  operation  for,  248 
Strongylosis,  bronchial,  189 

symptoms,  189 
Strongylus  equinum,  196 
rufescens,  189 

disease  produced  by,  189 
symptoms,  189 
tetracanthum,  196 
Strontium,  29 
Strophanthus,  action  and  dose,  326,  328 

uses,  328 
Strychnine,  actions  and  uses,  310 
antidote,  39,  340 
dose  for  dog  and  horse,  310 
poisoning  in  dog,  and  treatment,  340 
Succus  entericus,  119 
Suffixes,  7 
Suffraginis,    fracture   of,    symptoms   and 

treatment,  243 
Sulphur,  23 

an  element  of  protcids,  106 

effect  of  ingestion  of,  on  wool  growth, 

125 
in  disinfecting,  23 
properties  and  uses  of,  23 
Sunstroke,  differentiated  from  exhaustion, 
166 
symptoms  of,  201 
treatment,  201,  314 


Superior  maxilla,  anatomy,  45 
Suppuration,  208 

susceptibiUty  of  different  animals,  208 
Suprascapular  paralysis,  cause,  symptoms, 

and  treatment,  240 
Surgerj-,  206 
Surra,  causes  of,  163 
Suspensory  ligament,  anatomy,  55 

sprain    of,     causes,     prognosis, 
symptoms  and  treatment,  242 
Suture,  continuous,  uses  of,  207 
Swamp  fever,  causes  and  characteristics  of, 

182 
Sweat-glands,  123,  124 

in  different  genera,  123 
Sweeney,  defined,  216,  240 

treatment,  216,  240 
Swine  plague,  172 

prophylactic  measures  in  extinc- 
tion of,  173 
symptoms,  172 
Sylvius,  fissure  of,  72 
Symbiotes  communis,  203 
Sympathetic  nervous  system,  77 

functions  of,  135 
SjTiarthrosis,  52 
Syncope  in  anaesthesia,  258 
Synechia,  156 

Synergistic  remedial  agents,  297 
Synovitis,  214 
Synthesis,  3,  6 
Systole,  109 

Taenia  coenuris,  200 
mamillana,  195 
perfoliata,  195 
plicata,  195 
solium,  353 
Tapeworm  in  dog,  treatment,  323 

in  solipeds,  195 
Tar,  actions  of,  318 

coal,  products  of,  317 
souj"ce  and  uses,  318 
Tarsus,   conditions  causing  unsoundness, 

362 
Tartar  emetic,  34,  325 
actions,  325 
dose,  316,  325,  327 
vermifuge,  316 
Taste,  nerves  of,  134,  135,  137 

primary  sensations  of,  137 
Teeth,  anatomy,  78 

at  various  ages,  79,  225 
canine,  78 
composition  of,  78 
incisor,  77,  78 

horse  and  ox  compared,  78 
modifications    in    upper    and    lower 

molars,  79 
molar,  78 

repulsion  of  diseased  upper,  226 
Temperature,  body.  128 

average  normal,  for  different  genera, 
128 


INDEX 


393 


Temperature,  causes  of  the  variation  in,  129 
in  cold-blooded  animals,  128 
in  warm-blooded  animals,  128 
factors  in  regulation  of,  129 
result  of  severe  exercise  on,  129 
rise  in,  due  to  infection,  141 

due  to  nervous  disorders,  141 
due  to  poison,  141 
subnormal,  diseases  with,  171 
of  a  germ,  maximum,  minimum,  opti- 
mum, 164 
Tendinitis,  causes  of,  215,  242 
symptoms,  242 
treatment,  215,  241,  242 
Tendons,  bowed,  prescription  for,  216 
flexor,  contraction  of,  treatment,  241 
inflammation  of,   causes,   symp- 
toms and  treatment,  242 
metatarsi,  ruptxu-e  of,  247 
rupture  of,  causes  of,  215 
sm-gery,  215 
Tendovaginitis,    causes,    symptoms    and 

treatment,  215 
Tenotomy,  cunean,  object  of,  247 

peroneal,  object  of,  248 
Termination,  defined,  165 
Testicles,  anatomy,  coverings  of,  92 

function  of,  139 
Test,  agglutination,  166,  167 

complement-fixation,  166,  167 
for  preservatives  in  milk,  357 
mallein,  166,  167 
Marsh's,  for  arsenic,  33 
precipitin,  166 
Tetanus,  accessory  cause,  174 
bacillus  of,  162 
cause  and  prevention,  174 
genera  most  subject  to,  174 
immunization  in,  341 
symptoms  and  treatment,  174,  300 
Tetrad,  4 
Texas  fever,  causes,  176 

post-mortem  lesions,  158 
symptoms,  176 
Therapeutics,  defined,  297 
Thermic  fever,  symptoms  and  treatment 
of,  201 
differentiated  from  heat  exhaus- 
tion, 166 
Thermometric  equivalents,  2 
Thiothrix,  160 

Thirst,  cause  of  sensation  of,  119 
Thoracic  duct,  69,  123 

receptaculum  chyli  of,  70 
Thorax,  anatomy,  87 

diameters  enlarged  in  inspiration,  113 
diseases  of,  228 
of  horse  and  ox  compared,  87 
organs  contained  in,  87 
Thoroughbred,  361 

Thorough-pin  causes  unsovmdness,  362 
'         pathology  of,  249 
Throat,  diseases  of,  217 
Thrombin,  108 


Thrush,  causes,  prognosis,  symptoms  and 
treatment,  254 

differentiated  from  canker,  254 
Thumps,  treatment  for,  307 
Thymus  gland,  97,  98 

a  vascular  gland,  112 
Thyroid  gland,  97 

a  vascular  gland,  113 
function,  113 
Ticks,  203 
Tidal  ah-,  103,  114 
Tincture,  definition  of,  305 

difference  from  spirits,  305 

official,  306 

preparation  of,  305 
Tinea  tonsurans,  disease  produced  by,  164 
Tissue,  collecting  for  bacteriologic  exam- 
ination, 163 

connective,  101 

elastic  fibrous,  where  found,  101 

keraphyllous,  96 
Tongue,  anatomy,  77,  79 
Tonic,  321 

acid,  318 

blood  and  nerve,  314 
Topographical  anatomy,  98 
Torsion,  arresting  hemorrhage  by,  208 

of  uterus,  symptoms  and  treatment, 
283 
Toxicology,  38,  338 
Toxin,  163 

Trachea,  anatomy,  86 
Tracheotomy,  indications  for,  224 

in  oedema  of  glottis,  188 

structures  severed  in,  98 
Transudation  differs  from  secretion,  104 
Trapezoid  bond,  anatomy,  48 
Triad,  4 

Trichina  spiralis,  155,  202,  354 
Trichinosis,  202,  354 

animals  affected  by,  202 

chaimels  of  infection,  202 

diagnosis  and  prevention,  202 

disposition  of  carcass,  354 

lesions,  155 

methods  of  detection,  354 
Trifacial  nerve,  74 

function  of,  134 
Trochanterj  61 
Trochantene  lameness,  249 
Trochlea,  51 

Trypanosoma  Evansi,  163 
Trypsin,  116,  121 

Txiipentine,  oil  of,  administration  of,  311 
dose,  325 

source  and  use,  311 
Tube,  Eustachian,  anatomy,  95 
epithelium  of,  101 
function  of,  95,  137 

stomach-,  indications  for,  232 
metnods  of  passing,  232 
Tubercle,  crude  and  miliary,  159 
Tubercma  nates,  72 

testes,  72 


394 


INDEX 


Tuberculin,  162 

testing  with,  170 

sources  of  fallacy  in,  170 
Tuberculosis,  181 

bacillus  of,  162 

Bang  method  of  eradicating,  350 

channels  of  infection,  162 

course  of,  181 

generalized,  352 

handling  of  infected  herds,  348 

localized,  352 

rules  for  inspection  of  carcass,  351 

symptoms  of,  181 

tissues  most  commonly  affected,  159 
Tuberosity,  51 
Tumors,  classification  of,  145,  211 

defined,  211 

malignant  and  non-malignant,  145, 211 
Timica  adventitia,  99 

intima  and  media,  99 

vaginalis,  anatomy,  92 
Tympanites  accompanying  choke,  222 

in  cattle,  192 

ante-mortem   and  post-mortem, 

153 
symptoms  and  treatment,  192 

Udder,  anatomy,  91 
of  the  cow,  91 

diseases  affecting,  154 
Ulcer,  causes  and  treatment,  211 

defined,  144,  210 
Ulna,  anatomy,  47 
fracture  of,  241 

prognosis,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment, 241 
Umbilical  cord,  function,  271 

inflammation  of,   causes,   symp- 
toms and  treatment,  295 
hernia,  causes,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment, 295 
infection,  causes,  294 
Unciform  bone,  anatomy,  48 
Uncinaria,  197 

animals  attacked  by,  197 
symptoms  and  treatment,  197 
Unguentum  hydragyri,  299 

actions,  doses  and  uses,  299 
Uniparous,  266 
Unit,  antitoxin,  343 

of  measure  of  liquids,  306 
of  weight,  306 
Unsoundness,  conditions  of  tarsus  causing, 
362 
diseases  causing,  363 
faulty  conformation  predisposing  to, 

363 
in  horses  disqualifying,  363 
ITrachus,  275 

persistence  of,  296 

symptoms  and  treatment,  296 
Uraemia,  symptoms  and  treatment,  185 
Urea,  43,  127 

sources  of,  126 


Ureter,  anatomy,  89 
Urethra,  anatomy,  90 

of  horse  and  ox  compared,  90 
of  mare,  90 
Uric  acid,  127 
Urinary  organs,  89 

fetal  development  of,  276 
Urine,  42,  125 

acidity  of,  causes,  126 
albumin  in,  186 
test  for,  42 
average  amount  of,  in  horse  and  cow, 

126 
bile  in,  test  for,  42 
blood  in,  186 
composition  of,  125 
examination  of,  steps  in,  185 
of  herbivora  and  carnivora  compared, 

126 
reaction  of,  126 
specific  gravity  of,  43,  126 
sugar  in,  test  for,  42 
Urticaria,    causes,    symptoms   and   treat- 
ment, 203 
Uterine  inertia  in  mare,  283 

symptoms  and  treatment,  283 
Uterus,  amputation  of,  286 
anatomy,  90,  261 
blood  supply  of,  66,  262 
cervix  of,  279 
lacerations  of,  289 

methods  of  dilating,  279 
function  of,  266 
glands  of,  functions  of,  262 
inversion  of,  238,  286 

causes  and  symptoms,  286 
treatment,  238,  286 
ligaments  of,  91 

functions  of,  262 
modifications  after  labor,  266 

during  pregnancy,  269 
muscular  contractions  of,  280 

methods  of  overcoming,  280 
nerve  supply  of,  77 
of  bitch,  262 

of  cow  and  bitch  compared,  90 
pregnant,    influence    on    neighboring 
organs,  267 
situation  of,  in  mare    and  cow, 
275 
rigidity  of  the  os,  treatment,  284 
rupture  of,  during  labor,  289 
torsion  of,  symptoms  and  treatment, 
283 

Vaccine,  autogenous,  344 
prophylactic,  350 
therapy,  343 
Vagina,  anatomy,  91 
function  of,  91,  266 
inversion  of,  antepartum,  285 

causes,  prognosis  and  treatment, 
285 
strictly  a  generative  organ,  266 


INDEX 


395 


Vaginismus,  290 
Vaginitis,  causes,  290 

contagious,  symptoms  and  treatment 
of,  290 

defined,  290 

symptoms  and  treatment  of,  290 
Vagus  nerve,  anatomy,  75 
function  of,  135 
influence  on  heart,  109 
Valence,  4 
Valves,  heart,  62 

ileoeaecal,  83 

of  veins,  110 
Valvular  insufficiency,  causes  and  symp- 
toms, 186 
treatment,  187 
Vascular  glands,  112 
Vas  deferens,  definition  of,  92 
Vaseline,  source  of,  37 
Vaso-vasorum,  99 
Vegetables,  green,  127 
Veins,  anterior  cava^  68 

described,  99 

dorsal,  68 

function  of,  110 

internal  thoracic,  68 

jugular,  69 

portal,  69,  120 

pulmonary,  68 

spermatic,  92 

superior  cervical,  68 

vaJves  of,  110 

vena  azygos,  68 

vertebral,  68 
Venesection,  323 
Ventilation,  King  system  of,  346 

relation  of  air  space  to,  346 
Veratnim  viride,  actions,  306 

dose  for  dog  and  horse,  306 
uses,  306 
Vermifuge  for  cow,  dog  and  horse,  316 
Version,  obstetrics,  278 
Vertebrae,  anatomy,  48 

cervical,  48 

cormnon  characteristics  of,  49 

true,  49 
Vertigo,  abdominal,  199 

causes,     prevention,     symptoms 
and  treatment,  199 
Vesicovaginocele,  causes,  292 

reduction  of,  292 
Vesiculse  seminales,  92 

absent  in  dog  and  cat,  264 
function  of,  263 
Viborg  method  of  opening  guttural  pouch, 
220 

triangle,  220,  221 
Viburnum  prunifolium,  uses  of,  313 
Vieussens,  ring  of,  68 
Vinegar,  35 

Vitreous  huanor,  93,  94 
Vitriol,  blue,  7 
Voluntary  movements,  134 

muscle,  100,  130 


Vomition  in  cattle,  diagnosis,  192 

differentiated  from  regurgitation, 
192 
rare  in  the  horse,  reason,  117 
Vulva,  anatomy,  93 
function  of,  266 
mucous  membrane  of,  261 
epithelium  of,  261 
structure  of,  261 

Washing  soda,  7 

Water,  composition  of,  14 

decomposed,  14 

hard,  tests  for,  15 

lime,  30 

purifying,  14,  345 

soft,  15 

tests  for  chlorides  in,  14 
for  lead  in,  14 
for  nitrates  in,  14 
Weight,  atomic,  5 

metric  system  of,  306 

molecular,  5 

of  animal,   supported    by    hoof,  96, 
139 

unit  of,  306 
Whartonian  gelatin,  272 
Whey,  42 
White  scoiirs  in  calves,  178 

causes  and  treatment,  178 
Wind-galls,  causes,  defined,  216 
Wine,  35 
Wool  compared  with  fur  and  hair,  124 

conditions  favoring  growth  of,  125 
improvement  of,  125 

effect  of  ingestion  of  salt  on,  125 
of  sulphur  on,  125 
Wounds,  classification  of,  206 

heaUng  of,  207 

infection,  206 

lacerated,  treatment  of,  208 

of  the  coronet,  treatment,  208 

reopening,  indications  for,  207 

treatment  of  antiseptic  and  aseptic, 
206 
Wry-neck,  279 

Zinc,  31 

acetate,  35 
antidote  for,  39 
chloride,  31 

uses  of,  321 
oxide,  31 

uses  of,  321 
sulphate,  31 

an  emetic,  316 

dose  for  dog,  316 

distinguished  from  Epsom  salts, 

31 
preparation  of,  31 
uses  of,  321 
Zona  pellucida,  268 
Zone  of  Zinn,  anatomy,  93 
Zootechnics,  360 


VMtebtter  Famity  Library  of  Veterinary  hAecJicme 

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TuUb  University 

200  Westboro  Road 

Worth  Grafton,  MA  0153t^ 


